Since the introduction of the Griffiths Scales of Mental Development (Griffiths Scales) in the United Kingdom (1950) and South Africa (1977) they have become widely used and researched, both at a national and international level. Studies completed in South Africa have demonstrated the invaluable role the Griffiths Scales have fulfilled in the assessment of South African children of all cultural and socio-economic groups. However, research has indicated a need for the revision of the scales specifically relating to social and cultural factors that influence performance. The aim of this study was two-fold , namely: (i) to revise the 20 small pictures and the large picture of the Hearing and Speech Scale of the Griffiths Scales, making them more culturally relevant for the children of our contemporary world, and especially in South Africa; and (ii) to describe the performance of South African children, between 60 and 83 months of age, utilizing the revised pictures. For the qualitative component of the study a questionnaire pertaining to the small and large “Experimental pictures” was completed by the participants. The participants consisted of the executive committee members of the ARICD in the United Kingdom. Additionally 17 “expert “ Griffith's users and “lay-experts” working in early childhood development throughout South Africa, were included. Their responses were content analyzed and incorporated into the Experimental pictures. This resulted in the development of the Revised Griffiths pictures. The quantitative component of the study utilized two sample pools. Sample 1 (n=204) and Sample 2 (n=180) were comprised of pre-school children aged between 60 and 83 months. Sample 1 was utilized for the 20 small revised pictures and the large revised SA picture, while sample 2 was utilized for the 20 small revised pictures and the large revised United Kingdom/ European/Australian picture. Furthermore, both samples, consisted of children from all cultural, socio-economic, language, and gender groups. x The major findings of the present study were as follows: 1. Referring to sample 1, only the White and Indian pre-schoolers correctly identified a mean number of small pictures above that which was proposed by Griffiths (1960). The Coloured pre-schoolers almost identified Griffiths (1960) proposed number. 2. Referring to sample 2, all excepting the Black pre-schoolers correctly identified Griffiths’ (1960) proposed mean of small pictures. 3. All children from sample 1 and sample 2 were able to identify more stimuli from the large revised pictures, than was proposed by Griffiths (1960). 4. All four cultural groups from samples 1 and 2, elicited a mean number of descriptive words below Griffiths’ (1960) proposed criteria. 5. White pre-schoolers from sample 1 elicited a mean number of descriptive sentences above Griffiths’ (1960) proposed criteria. 6. White and Coloured pre-schoolers from sample 2 elicited a mean number of descriptive sentences above Griffiths’ (1960) proposed criteria. 7. All four cultural groups from sample 1 and sample 2, elicited a mean number of personal or possessive pronouns below Griffith's (1960) proposed criteria. 8. A general trend noted for the four cultural groups of both samples, was that the percentage of children who passed successive age-appropriate items, did not decrease stepwise as would be expected from the placement of items in order of difficulty. In view of the latter finding, it is recommended that for South African children the placement of the items for the small and large pictures of the Hearing and Speech Scale should be revised in terms of their order of difficulty. It is furthermore recommended that separate norms for South African children be established for the Hearing and Speech Scale

Child assessment has become imperative today as parents and teachers recognize the need for early diagnostic assessments to adequately cater for children’s’ diverse and growing needs so that children can benefit from services and attention in a psychological or educational setting. The Griffiths Mental Development Scales, an established and well-researched instrument is reported to be one of the most carefully designed measures of child development . Studies in various parts of the world have demonstrated that the Griffiths Scales are applicable to diverse populations and that they tap experiences that are common to different cultures. The recent revision and restandardisation of the Griffiths Mental Developmental Scales-Extended Revised (GMDS-ER) has necessitated investigations into its psychometric properties. In view of the important role that assessment measures play in the early identification of developmental delays, it is important that assessment measures are reliable and valid for their intended purpose(s). This study, which is part of a larger research project, attempted to explore and add further evidence of the construct validity of one of the six Subscales of the GMDS-ER, namely the Personal-Social Subscale (Subscale B). An exploratory-descriptive design using a triangulation approach was utilized to explore the construct validity of the Personal-Social Subscale. A nonprobability purposively selected sample of 18 experts working with children participated in the facet analysis to identify the constructs underlying Subscale B (the qualitative aspect of the study). The sample for the quantitative aspects of this study (i.e., the empirical validation of the identified constructs) was collected as part of the broader restandardisation and represented a stratified random sample of 1026 children between the ages of 3 and 8 years from across the United Kingdom and Eire. Three measures, namely a biographical questionnaire, the GMDS-ER and a construct evaluation form were used to gather the qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data was analysed by means of facet analysis and literature control. The quantitative data was analysed by using exploratory common factor analysis using oblique (DQUART) rotation to empirically verify the qualitatively identified construct model by specifying a onefactor solution for each underlying construct.

To constantly add to our understanding of child development, a valid, comprehensive, well-researched measure is needed. The recent revision and standardisation of the Griffiths Mental Development Scales - Extended Revised (GMDS-ER) has necessitated investigations into its psychometric properties. This measure is used to identify developmental delays in children and critical decisions may be made, hence it is imperative that this measure be deemed both reliable and valid. This study aimed to contribute to the broader restandardisation project and focussed on gathering qualitative and quantitative construct-related validity evidence for one of the six Subscales of the GMDS-ER, namely the Eye and Hand Coordination Subscale (Subscale D). An exploratory descriptive method using a triangulation approach was used to explore the construct-related validity evidence of the Eye and Hand Coordination Subscale. A non-random purposively selected sample of 6 experts, who had worked at least 10 years with children assessing and evaluating the domain of eye-hand coordination, participated in a facet analysis to identify the underlying dimensions tapped by the Eye and Hand Coordination Subscale. The sample for the quantitative aspects of this study, the empirical validation of the construct model, was collected as part of the broader restandardisation and represented a stratified sample of 1026 children between the ages 24 months and 96 months from across the United Kingdom and Eire. Three measures, namely a biographical questionnaire, the GMDS-ER and a construct evaluation form were used to gather the qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data was analysed by means of a facet analysis and literature control which included examining other tests or subtests that tapped eye-hand coordination skills. The quantitative data was analysed by means of exploratory common factor analysis using oblique (DQUART) rotation in order to verify the qualitatively identified construct model by specifying a one-factor solution for each underlying construct. While literature suggests that eye-hand coordination is multidimensional in nature the facet analysis revealed that the tasks tapped by Subscale D were not tapping complex skills aside from eye-hand coordination. The facet analysis thus revealed that all the items tap the eye-hand coordination of fine motor tasks and that these items could be grouped into two categories, using writing utensils and object manipulation. The results from the factor analysis confirmed that the items on Subscale D have one underlying construct and further exploration confirmed that these items could in fact be grouped into two categories. The coefficients of congruence for SES and gender were satisfactory and thus the construct model was validated across these groups as well. The study has provided extensive qualitative and quantitative evidence for the construct-related validity of the Eye and Hand Coordination Subscale of the GMDS-ER, thus validating its use as a sound measure of eye-hand coordination development in children aged 2 to 8 years. The content coverage however, seemed to indicate that the tasks required do not adequately cover all the facets of eye-hand coordination and some of these item types are tapped by the other Subscales in the measure. Hence, should the Subscale be used as an independent assessment of eye-hand coordination, the eye-hand coordination development of the child would have a narrow focus. In addition, in reviewing the variety of tasks in the two sections for the older and younger child, the researcher noted that while section III tapped a variety of skills, section IV only focused on skills associated with drawing, copying and writing. A review of the age appropriateness of the items and the item analysis results from the revision seemed to indicate that some of the items assessing the older child may need to be revised. Further, the researcher suggested that the revision should consider adding additional dimensions to the tasks assessed. Overall, it is the researcher‟s opinion that this Subscale was not given adequate attention during the revision process and should future revisions occur, the recommendations from this study should be considered.

Although it is generally acknowledged that critical career-related concepts and attitudes are first formed in childhood, research has focused little attention on this developmental stage. Statements about children‘s career development as an integral dimension of human development date to the early 1950s, yet limited research has investigated this interrelationship. It is imperative to gain a greater understanding of childhood career development in order to better prepare children for their future. The overall purpose of this study is to explore the interrelationship of childhood development and childhood career development. An exploratory-descriptive quantitative research method was used. Thirty participants (all eight year-old girls from a middle class, English speaking background) were selected through non-probability purposive sampling. Data were gathered from the Griffiths Mental Development Scales – Extended Revised (GMDS-ER) and the Childhood Career Development Scale (CCDS) and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicated a correlation, although not statistically significant, between childhood development and childhood career development, thus indicating a weak positive correlation between the two variables. Statistically significant relationships were established between certain subscales of the GMDS-ER and CCDS, namely Language and Exploration, Eye-Hand Co-ordination and Key Figures, and Practical Reasoning and Planning. The results from this study, although not conclusive, are groundbreaking in this neglected area of research as they indicate an interrelationship between childhood development and childhood career development. This research is an initial step in investigating this interrelationship and it is the hope of the researcher that it will stimulate further research in this area.

Both children and adults share a common, culturally distinct view of what it means to be male or female. These gender stereotypes are pervasive in society and daily social interactions, and influence all aspects of gender development (Golombok & Fivush, 1994). The inherent physical differences of boys and girls may have triggered the speculation and accompanying myths surrounding the existence of gender differences in childhood development. Many people believe that boys and girls follow a different developmental path that lead to gender differences in intellectual ability. An up-to-date and integrative review of theory and research on gender indicates two opposing perspectives on the topic, with substantial information supporting each view. However, this is the first study to examine and compare a sample of South African pre-school boys and girls from a truly holistic developmental perspective on the recently released Griffiths Mental Development Scales-Extended Revised (GMDS-ER). Developmental theorists have emphasized the profound impact early childhood development has on subsequent development, as it shapes the course of an individual’s life. Contemporary cognitive developmental theories, such as Demetriou’s (2000; 2004) developmental model of cognitive development, advance that child development does not progress in a fixed and predictable manner. Instead, Demetriou proposes that development occurs in a wave-like fashion, where the processes and functions of the various levels of the mind may be at differing points in their cycle of development. When one function progresses to a higher level, it unlocks the possibility for another function to advance to a different point in its cycle (Demetriou et al., 2002). As the significance of understanding the process of early childhood development more fully increases, so does the need to establish with more confidence the value and role of developmental assessment in the early identification of problems. The overall purpose of this study was to generate comparative information regarding the general development of a sample of 5- and 6-year-old South African pre-school boys and girls. Specifically, the study aimed to explore and describe the developmental profiles of pre-school boys and girls within the abovementioned age group with respect to their overall performance on the GMDS-ER as well as their performance on the six Subscales. Then, the mean General Quotients (GQ) and developmental profiles of the pre-school boys and girls obtained on the GMDS-ER were compared. An exploratory-descriptive quantitative research method was used. The sample (N = 64) was selected through a combination of non-probability, purposive and convenience xiii sampling. Within this framework, a between-subjects design in which matching was used to control extraneous variables, was employed. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics and independent sample t-tests to compare the GQs of the gender groups. A Hotellings T2 was used to compare the Subscale profiles. No significant gender differences were found when comparing the overall developmental and Subscale profiles of the boys and girls on the GMDS-ER. However, certain interesting trends did emerge from a review of the findings when compared to the literature review and previous studies. The information generated from this study has contributed to our knowledge base of the performance of South African children on the recently released GMDS-ER.

The South African context necessitates developmental assessment measures with particular characteristics. A critical examination of a variety of potential measures indicates that there are very few measures available to meet these specific needs. The GMDS-ER is judged to be one such measure. This study explores the performance of South African children aged 4 to 7 years of age as it relates to that of British children (from the standardisation sample). The samples consisted of normal South African (n=129) and British (n=161) children, where normalcy refers to the absence of sensory, physical, or mental handicap. The study was done in an attempt to explore the suitability of using the GMDS-ER in the South African context. More specifically, the following two aims were pursued: 1. To explore and describe the general development of each of four year groups of a sample of British and South African children by utilising the general developmental quotient of the GMDS-ER 2. To explore and describe the comparative developmental profiles of each of the four year groups of a sample of British and South African children across the six developmental areas represented by the subscales of the GMDS-ER. Descriptive statistics and simple t-tests were used to accomplish Aim 1 and Hotellings T2 tests were mainly used in order to accomplish Aim 2. The major findings of the present study were as follows: 1. South African and British children’s overall performances (as measured by the GMDS-ER GQ) are similar. A great deal of variability exists between the GMDS-ER profiles of normal South African and British children (i.e., when individual subscales and year groups are considered). 3. In general, South African children performed better on the Locomotor and Personal-Social Subscales, while British children performed better on the Language and Practical Reasoning Subscales. Performance on the Eye and Hand Coordination Subscale was similar for the two samples and on the Performance Subscale performance was too variable to come to any general conclusions. In view of the findings, caution with regard to the use of the British-based norms in the South African context is recommended. Recommendations are made for the use of the GMDS-ER to help with the identification of specific classes of disorders in the South African context. Further investigation into the applicability of the GMDS-ER for South African use as well as the establishment of South African norms are final recommendations.

The health status of a substantial number of South African children can be classified as “children at risk” (Luiz, 1999) as the majority of children are influenced by factors such as poverty, poor living conditions and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. These are only some of the influences that contribute significantly to the health status of South African children and consequently their development. It can thus be argued that developmental assessment is imperative in the South African context. One of the most important reasons are that children with special needs in South Africa can be identified and given the opportunity to catch up developmentally and cope successfully as opposed to those who are identified much later (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2006). Furthermore, children in South Africa must begin Grade one in the year in which they turn seven. They may only enter grade one if the school has an opening and if the necessary evidence is provided to the Department of Education that the child will be able to cope with the demands of formal schooling (Department of Education, 2002). Developmental assessment measures therefore needs to be appropriate, accurate and informative in the modern South African context. The need for a measuring instrument to assess children’s overall development and thus their developmental readiness to cope with the demands of formal schooling could be satisfied by the Griffiths Mental Development Scales – Extended Revised (GMDS-ER). This recently revised measure has not been normed on a representative, contemporary South African sample. The purpose of the study was therefore to generate information on the applicability of British norms for the contemporary South African population. This study compared and explored the performance of South African and British children aged 5-years and 6-years on the Griffiths Mental Development Scales - Extended Revised (GMDS-ER). A contemporary South African sample was obtained by testing children between the ages of 5-years and 6-years on the GMDS-ER, whilst the British sample was drawn from the United Kingdom and Eire standardization sample. The British sample was screened for normality and a similar process was followed to establish normality for the South African sample. A matched simple frequency distribution technique (taking into account age, socioeconomic status and gender as variables) was employed to approximate the equivalence between the samples. The profiles were compared by conducting an independent sample t-test with subsequent post hoc analyses to explore potential differences in the performance of the two samples. The major findings of the present study were as follows: 1. There is a significant difference between the South African and British children’s overall developmental profiles (as measured by the GMDS-ER). 2. Generally, South African children performed better on the Locomotor subscale and the Personal Social Subscale (although not statistically significant), whilst British children performed statistically better on the Language, Eye and Hand Co-ordination, and Practical Reasoning Subscales. 3. No significant differences were found for the Performance Subscale which could indicate that South African and British children’s performances on this scale are similar. Further investigations into the applicability of the GMDS-ER for the contemporary South African context are recommended and the establishment of South African norms for clinical utilization is essential. Caution with regard to the utilization of the British–based norms in the South African context is final recommendations.

Despite the concept of twins and twinning being a highly explored area of research for many years, limited research has been conducted on the comparison of first and second born twin development. The nature of twins leads people to believe that twins will present with similar characteristics, however, this study explores the possibility that due to their ordinal position they could in fact present with differing characteristics and could differ developmentally. The early holistic development of a child influences the rest of their lives. Concerning twins, the development of individuality and self-knowledge is especially important. Theorists, such as Piaget (1950), propose that child development takes place in stages and that although the order in which children proceed through these stages is the same, the pace at which this takes place can vary. The necessity of monitoring the child’s journey through these stages highlights the value of child developmental assessment. This form of assessment needs to be holistic, needs to involve a multidisciplinary team of professionals and needs to utilize assessment measures that are valid, reliable, culture-fair and standardized. The Griffiths Mental Development Scales-Extended Revised (GMDS-ER) is one such measure. This study, focusing on twin development, aimed to contribute and provide valuable information to a larger research project that is currently under way aiming to increase the applicability of the Griffiths Mental Development Scales-Extended Revised (GMDS-ER) in the South African context. The primary aim of the study, however, was to explore and compare the performance of normal first born and second born twins, aged between 2 and 8 years 4 months old, on the GMDS-ER. The purpose of the study was to generate information on the relationship between first born twins’ general development and second born twins’ general development. An exploratory, descriptive quantitative design was used. Participants were selected through a combination of non-probability purposive, convenience and snowball sampling. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics and dependent sample t-tests were employed to compare the General Quotients (GQ’s) of the first and second born twins in the sample. Results showed that no significant differences were found between the first and second born twins’ general development. Information generated from this study contributed to 1) child development research; 2) twin developmental research within a South African context; and 3) a greater group of studies on the GMDS-ER, currently underway in the United Kingdom and South Africa, aiming to contribute to the international credibility of this measure

This study aimed at exploring the developmental profile of HIV positive/AIDS infants and children (three to 35 months) over a period of 11 months in the Nelson Mandela Metropole, utilising the Revised Extended Griffiths Scales of Mental Development (GSMD). The purpose was to generate information about the development of HIV positive/AIDS infants and children, highlighting developmental strengths and weaknesses to ultimately aid the custodians of these children with their interventions. A non-probability purposive sampling method was applied, and a longitudinal profile was generated as participants were assessed twice. Participants were all outpatients at Kwazakhele Day Clinic, Dora Nginza and Livingstone Hospitals in the Nelson Mandela Metropole, and were located for the study through their caregiver’s attendance of an HIV support groups at the Dora Nginza Hospital. Data was analysed statistically using descriptive statistics and Hotelings-T² tests. Results indicated a significant difference between first and second assessment on the General Quotient and on two of the six subscales, namely Eye-Hand Co-ordination (D) and Practical Reasoning (F). It was deduced that development declined or did not improve as participants aged.