Thesis (M.Sc. (Plant Production)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014 / Wild medlar (Vangueria infausta subsp. infausta) is a popular indigenous fruit available and consumed by rural communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Inadequate post-harvest practices in indigenous fruit plants including V. infausta fruit forms major constrains in expanding their production. There is scanty information documented on neither objective nor subjective harvesting indices of indigenous fruit plants consumed by locals in sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of harvesting time on physico-chemical properties and selected nutritional composition of V. infausta fruit. Fruits were harvested twice, where two harvesting times were regarded as treatments and each tree as replication. The reduction for fruit weight, sugar content and sugar/acid ratio was highly significant (P ≤ 0.05), whereas for average fruit diameter, seed weight, acid ratio and pH content this may imply that the listed parameters are treatment which was non-significant (P ≤ 0.05). The treatment reduced P, K, Mn and Fe by 33%, 18%, 3% and 7%, respectively. On the other hand, treatments had no effect on N and Ca. The reduction of phosphorus was highly significant (P ≤ 0.05), whereas for N, K, Ca, Mn and Fe treatment impact was non-significant (P ≤ 0.05). Similarly, the treatment consistently reduced moisture content and increased dry matter and crude protein of V. infausta by 76%, 300% and 7%, respectively. The reduction of moisture content, increase in dry matter was highly significant (P ≤ 0.05), whereas crude protein treatment impact was non-significant (P ≤ 0.05). The data indicated that the best time to harvest V. infausta fruit was during January when fruits were cosmetically appealing and not wrinkled. This study demonstrated that there was less variation in some measured objective harvesting indices of V. infausta fruit harvested at two harvesting time. More work would be required to do physico-chemical properties and selected mineral elements analysis from wide growth habitat for conclusive recommendations.

Thesis (MSc. (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2011 / In-field rainwater harvesting technology is the technique that combines the advantages of water harvesting, no till, basin tillage and mulching on high drought risk clay soils. It reduces total runoff to zero, and also considerably reduce surface evaporation. The scarcity of agricultural water is increasing at a faster rate than for other sectors in Limpopo Province. Sufficient, clean drinking water is essential to life, but millions of people throughout the world including South Africa continue to have no access to this basic necessity. This study aimed at investigating the extent and nature of adoption of in-field rainwater harvesting technology by households in Lambani village of Limpopo Province. The main objectives of this study were to identify factors determining the in-field rainwater adoption technology for cropland productivity in Lambani village and to determine the extent to which in-field rainwater harvesting adoption influences cropland productivity in Lambani village. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 70 farmers in Lambani village of Limpopo Province. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, logistic regression model and linear regression model were used to analyse the data. Descriptive statistics was used to describe the characteristics of households and the nature of Lambani village, and logistic regression model was used to investigate factors that determine the adoption of infield rainwater harvesting technology, while linear regression model was used to determine the extent to which in-field rainwater harvesting influence the cropland productivity in Lambani village. The results from the logistic regression model indicate that 5 variables out of 10 variables are significant in explaining farmers’ adoption decision. Land size, access to financial service, access to information and contact with extension officer are some of the variables that have significantly positive effects on the adoption of infield rainwater harvesting technology, while hired labour has significantly negative correlation with adoption. Variables such as household size, level of education, age of the household, level of income and the main water source do not significantly influence adoption of in-field rainwater harvesting. This information will help prioritize

MSc (Plant Production) / Department of Plant Production / See the attached abstract below

PhDRDV / Institute for Rural Development / Approximately, 780 million of people in the world lack access to safe water for domestic use. Out of these, 37 % are found in sub-Saharan Africa. Because of the negative impact of climate variability and change, scarcity of water is likely to continue worsening. Although semi-arid areas experience water shortages, they receive limited amounts of rainfall. Rainwater might help alleviate temporal water shortages. However, rainwater is rarely harvested for use when most needed. The PhD in Rural Development thesis research was carried out in Mabayeni village, which falls under Ward 35 of Collins Chabane Local Municipality in Limpopo Province of South Africa. It was designed to develop a grassroots community-informed prototype for a technology that could be used to harvest rainwater for domestic use. A series of interrelated studies with the following specific objectives underpinned the research: (1) To determine the extent of water scarcity; (2) To identify strategies households used to cope with inadequate availability of water for domestic use; (3) To document the rainwater harvesting techniques rural households used; (4) To compare the features of rainwater harvesting technology that people of different age groups preferred; (5) To develop community-preferred prototypes of rainwater harvesting technology with the best potential to increase access to water for domestic use; and (6) To evaluate the community-preferred prototypes of rainwater harvesting technology. Partly, the study was conducted as a follow-up to a Master’s research study on climate change carried out in 2014 in Mabayeni village. In the 2014 study, it was revealed that water scarcity was a major result of climate change in the area. In addition, Mabayeni was perceived as the driest compared to other villages in the ward. The Cresswell (2013) explanatory sequential mixed method design guided the study. Multi-stage sampling was followed to select respondents. This entailed categorizing respondents first dividing them by age and gender. Respondents were placed in the following clusters: children (boys and girls), youth (male and female), adult (men and women), and the elderly. This was done in order to ensure that there was triangulation of data sources. Various participatory research techniques were used to collect qualitative data for the same reason. For objective 1, data collection techniques such as photo voice, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, participatory mapping, transect walks, storytelling and seasonal diagramming were used. Data were analysed through card sorting, Atlas.ti version 7.5.7-mediated thematic content analysis, map ranking, matrix scoring and conversation analysis. Data collection techniques employed for objective 2 were similar to those used in objective 1 with the exception of participatory mapping. Thematic content analysis in Atlas.ti, map ranking and matrix ranking were used to analyse data for this objective. Only focus group discussions, key informant interviews and transect walks were used to collect data for objective 3. Data analysis techniques used were similar to those used in the previous objective with the exception of map ranking. For objective 4, data were collected through focus group discussions and analysed using matrix ranking and Atlas.ti-aided thematic content analysis. In objective 5, development of artefacts was guided by prototyping and sketch modelling techniques. Techniques such as verbal protocol analysis, mathematical calculations and presentation and analysis were used to analyse data. A questionnaire with open and closed ended questions was also used to collect data for the last objective. Open-ended questions were analysed using thematic content analysis. In addition, the Kruskal Wallis test in SPSS version 25 determined first, the two prototypes (one for zinc and another for thatch roof) that were regarded as the best; and second, if prototype component ratings significantly differed (p <0.05) across prototypes. As a post hoc test, the Dunn’s test in R Statistical Software version 3.3.0 was used for pairwise comparisons. Data saturation determined the sample size. A total of 17 community engagement sessions were held to collect, analyse and validate findings with the grassroots community members in Mabayeni village. Water scarcity in Mabayeni village was reconfirmed to be seasonal. The dry season in each year was five months long. During this time, residents adopted random, risky and unhygienic coping strategies. Although rainwater was collected from rooftops, there was no formal technology used to gather and store large quantities for later use. This was attributed to lack of resources and knowledge on how to develop such technologies. The most commonly preferred features of rainwater harvesting technology across interest groups related to water quality, construction materials and security. All interest groups preferred a technology that harvested clean/potable water. Moreover, the elderly wanted a technology that would help them access the stored water easily. In total, 14 prototypes were developed. When all the interest groups evaluated the prototypes, the ones that boys and men developed were selected as the best for zinc and thatched roofbased technologies, respectively. Selection of a prototype that children produced as the best underlined that children were an important resource that communities should never marginalise. Nor should their ability to contribute useful ideas be underestimated when seeking solutions to local challenges. Active involvement of grassroots community members in the entire design process helped tailor specifications of the technology to user needs, thereby highlighting the importance of inclusive decision making in development practice. This was also important because it created ownership and increased chances of adopting the technology. Lastly, the current study reaffirmed the view that postgraduate degree research can be harnessed to coproduce solutions to community-identified challenges. / NRF

MSCAGR (Animal Science) / Department of Animal Science / Forage and browse legumes play an important role in sustaining livestock in small holder farming systems in the tropics, mainly as a result of their contribution to economic and environmental sustainability of livestock production. The study was conducted to determine the chemical composition, ruminal degradability and in vitro digestibility of dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) of Dichrostachys cinerea and Bauhinia thonningii leaves. The browse tree leaves were harvested in the wild in Shayandima, Limpopo province. The leaves were collected, oven-dried, milled to pass through a 1.0 mm sieve and analysed for chemical composition in the Animal Science Nutrition Laboratory, at the University of Venda. The browse tree leaves were analysed for DM nitrogen, neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF). Approximately 5 g of leaf sample milled to pass through through a 1 mm sieve were placed in nylon bags (external dimension: 6 × 12 cm, pore size of 41 μm) and incubated in duplicates for 0, 4, 8, 16, 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 hours periods in the rumen of three cannulated Bonsmara steers. The residues were then analysed for DM and nitrogen. Parameters to describe the dynamics of ruminal degradability of DM and CP were obtained by fitting the data on the exponential equation P = a + b (1 - e-ct) using NEWAY computer program, where “a” is the rapid degradable fraction, “b” is the slow degradable fraction and “c” is the outflow rate. The in vitro DM and CP degradability of rumen undegradable residue collected after 24 and 48 hour incubation was determined by sequential in vitro digestion in pepsin (abomasal) and pancreatin (small intestine) solutions. DM and CP content differed significantly (P ˂ 0.05). D. cinerea leaves had higher levels of DM and CP content than B. thonningii leaves. DM and CP disappearance increased (P < 0.01) as the incubation period increased. There was no difference (P > 0.05) in soluble fraction ‘a’ and ‘b’ of DM of the two species. The CP components for both fraction ‘a’ and ‘b’ differed significantly (P < 0.01) for CP among the two species. There was significant difference (P < 0.01) in post-ruminal digestibility among the two species. CP digestibility of B. thonningii and D. cinerea leaves was reduced (P < 0.01). In conclusion, B. thonningii and D. cinerea leaves showed significant difference based on their fermentation kinetics and in vitro digestibility, suggesting a good nutritional quality which can be used as protein source for ruminants in dry season and supplement to low-quality diets. / NRF

MRDV / Institute for Rural Development / This study originated from the realisation that non-conventional crops such as Bambara nuts (Vigna subterranea) were becoming increasingly important in addressing food insecurity and malnutrition in the smallholder farming sector of countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, some of the smallholder crop farmers were observed to be continuing to rely on indigenous techniques to forecast rainfall and adapt agricultural activities in response to climate variability. However, it was not clear how climate change influenced the productivity of V. subterranea. Nor were the indigenous approaches that farmers used to forecast rainfall on this phenomenon well understood. Thus, a study was carried out to identify and document indigenous approaches that smallholder farmers used to forecast rainfall and adaptation practices relating to V. subterranea. The study was conducted in Xigalo and Lambani villages located in Collins Chabane Local Municipality of Vhembe District in Limpopo Province. The villages served as case study areas that helped to compare the native approaches that the Va-Tsonga and Vha-Venda used to forecast rainfall in the course of producing V. subterranea. A multi-case study research design, which was exploratory in nature was adopted. Convenience and snowball sampling techniques were used to identify and select respondents. The triangulation of participatory methods, techniques and tools guided the collection of qualitative data. Key informant interviews, learning circles, photovoice, one-on-one interviews and narrative inquiry techniques were applied during data collection. Smallholder farmers and the elderly members of communities were the respondents. Nine key informants in Xigalo and Lambani villages were interviewed. One retired and two currently serving government extension officers were also interviewed. Separate learning circles comprising mainly elderly men and women were also organised. Each learning circle was made up of 7-10 respondents. Atlas.ti version 7.5.7 software was used to analyse the qualitative data following the thematic content analysis approach. It was observed that the respondents were aware of climate variability events that affected V. subterranea. Some of the events were shifts in rainfall patterns, heavy rainfall, extreme temperatures, scarcity of summer rainfall, the disappearance of lunar signs and the seasonal cycle variations. Eighteen types of phenological signs used to predict rainfall were identified. The most common signs included the Milky Way Galaxy of stars, musical sounds of birds and frogs, moon shapes, cumulus and cumulonimbus cloud types. A close relationship between conservation of V. subterranea and adaptation strategies was said to exist. It was evident that most commonly used conservation strategies were rainmaking ceremonies, planting after the summer rains, hoeing weeds, soaking seeds before planting, hilling or earthing up around the base of the V. subterranea plant and storing the legumes in traditional vessels and sacks. The need for integrating western scientific knowledge with native forecasts to inform the production of V. subterranea was uncovered. In addition to this, the needs of Tsonga and Venda communities should inform local policy interventions. Lastly, adaptation strategies that address food insecurity with V. subterranea being part of the agro-ecosystem deserve attention in scientific investigation and policymaking. / NRF

MENVSC / Department of Geography and Geo-Information Sciences / Many rural communities of South Africa are living without adequate water supplies mainly due to historical lack of infrastructure and effective water reticulation systems. Day to day challenges of accessing water from distant boreholes and rivers are a reality particularly for women and children in rural Limpopo. This study investigates the nature and extent of water supply problems and how communities are living without adequate water in three rural communities of Greater-Giyani Local Municipality in South Africa. The study area lies in a semi-arid region which regularly experiences climate extremes such as droughts and floods which can reduce the ability of the municipality to supply water. Primary data was collected through questionnaires, key informant interviews and field observations while population, climate and hydrological data are also analyzed. A mixed methods research design was employed using qualitative methods such as content analysis whilst quantitative methods were dominated by time series analysis techniques and online interactive climate platforms such as the Climate Engine. It was found that households, schools and clinics in the study area rely mainly on boreholes for water supply but sometimes rivers supply those living nearby. An incomplete and poor water reticulation system coupled with erratic and shortening summer rainfall seasons are some of the major causes of water shortages in the study area. In order to cope with inadequate water, community members and public institutions in the study area have drilled boreholes and the sustainability of groundwater in the area is not well established. During summer, most households and institutions practise rainwater harvesting while a few resort to purchasing water from vendors. Despite these challenges which are not well documented, it was concluded that most of the rural poor households and institutions in the study area are well adapted to cope with water scarcity in the short term, while being vulnerable in the long term due to population growth and climate change. The study recommends the need for government and municipalities to invest in water reticulation systems in the long term whilst providing water to affected rural communities through water tankers, drilling more boreholes and maintenance of existing ones. Lessons learnt from this study may be useful to other municipalities across South Africa that are grappling with challenges of water access and supply. / NRF