<p> This is a pilot study of a proposed model for examining the main and interactionist effects of achievement goal orientations on moral function and the role of perceived ability as a potential moderator in sport morality levels through cluster analysis procedures. One hundred and three elite (103) athletes participating in Division I wrestling completed the Task Ego Orientation in Sport Competition Questionnaire (TEOSQ-COMP; Harwood, 2002), Perceived Ability Inventory Subscale (PAI; Lemyre, et al., 2002), and Hahm-Beller Values Choice Inventory (HBVCI; Hahm, Beller, &amp; Stoll, 1989). Analysis of motivation involved the investigation of motivation from a goal profile standpoint through cluster analysis. Cluster analysis revealed three emergent goal profile combinations: Cluster 1 &ndash; High-Ego/Moderate Task; Cluster 2 &ndash; Low-Ego/Moderate-Task; Cluster 3 &ndash; Moderate-Ego/High-Task. The emergent cluster profiles were then examined for between group interaction effects of goal orientation and perceived ability upon moral function. ANOVA revealed strong interactions between ego orientation and moral function for Clusters 1 and 2, but not at significant effect. As well the moderating interaction of perceived ability upon moral function for Clusters 1 and 2 was strong, but again not at significant levels. These findings help encourage dialogue about the impact the motivational climate of Division I Athletics has upon its participants. By building upon the investigation of competition as a contextualized variable of impact on motivation and moral function (Harwood, 2002; van de Pol &amp; Kavussanu, 2012), this study proposes a more advanced model for investigating the interactionist effect between these two and the motivational climate of Division I sport. </p>

<p> The unique characteristics of the Global War on Terror have increased the number of troops returning with combat-related disabilities (CRD). Veterans with these CRD experience a variety of negative impacts on their functioning. Not only are the veterans' lives being negatively impacted by CRD, the families of veterans with CRD are also being affected. Therapeutic recreation (TR) programs are currently being used to reduce the negative impacts of CRD for veterans and their families. This study examined the influences of TR programs for veterans with CRD and their significant others (SOs) based on the ICF components of participation, body structure, function, and environmental factors. This study also examined the perceptions of veterans and their SOs about the benefits and important components of TR programs. The influences of the TR programs were examined by using a pretest, posttest, and one month follow-up to determine the impacts to the veterans' and SOs' PTSD symptoms, depression symptoms, family functioning and family recreation involvement along with the veterans' community reintegration. In addition, eight interviews were conducted with participants of the TR programs to determine the benefits and important components. There was a significant decrease in the veterans PTSD symptoms, the SOs depression symptoms, and trending towards an increase in family recreation involvement. The benefits of participation were identified as social reconnection, distraction, positive emotions, increased competence, and learning new skills; whereas, the important components were staff and a safe environment.</p>

Quadriceps, muscle endurance, fatigue and recovery were evaluated in elite and novice rowers in order to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the development and recovery from fatigue following several bouts of exercise. Baseline evaluations recorded the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) using a force transducer, muscle activation via the Interpolated Twitch Technique (ITT) and the compound muscle action potential (m-wave) from the electromyographic (EMG) signal. Contractile properties of the twitch, which included the peak tension (Pt), time to peak tension (TPT) and half-relaxation time (RT 1/2), were also recorded. The rowers then completed a 2500 meter simulated rowing race and the muscle was re-evaluated. Two successive standard fatigue protocols (SFP) followed with subsequent evaluations taking place after each SFP. The successive bouts of exercise caused the MVC to drop considerably. Results revealed that excitation-contraction (E-C) uncoupling was the major factor behind the development of fatigue in both groups due to the differential effects of fatigue and recovery on Pt versus MVC. Activation levels dropped minimally and m-wave amplitudes were unchanged from pre-fatigue levels. Elite rowers' quadriceps muscles demonstrated superior endurance during both SFPs, but to a lesser extent following the second SFP. These results suggest that possible metabolic differences in the environment of the muscle may lead to increased resistance to local muscle fatigue in elite rowers. This research study contributes to the current understanding of neuromuscular fatigue and adds to the physiological profile of athletes who participate in the sport of rowing.

<p> The colloquial phrases "choke artist" and "clutch performer" are used to refer to individuals who have a tendency to falter or excel, respectively, when performing under pressure conditions. The objective of this study was to conduct a broad survey of the extant literature on the topic of performance under pressure and to offer a Critical Interpretive Synthesis (CIS) of that literature. The output of this project was multi-faceted and included an organized exposition and coarse-grained critical analysis of the literature on performance under pressure, an interpretive synthesis containing multiple suggestions for improving the literature base, and a reflexive account of the experimental use of the CIS methodology.</p><p> The critical analysis centered on a critique of the field's predominantly positivistic approach, which has produced a fragmented and ambiguous literature pervaded by enduring difficulties across the domains of conceptualization, research, theory, and practice. The interpretive synthesis was subsequently organized around the theme of advocating for a more balanced and integrative approach to both inquiry and intervention that honors the inevitable role of subjectivity in the pressure-performance relationship.</p><p> Specific suggestions for improving the literature base included incorporating a subjective self-assessment component into the operational definition of choking, complementing experimental studies with more qualitative and mixed-methods research, constructing interactional theories of choking that consider the important role of context and meaning-making, and treating athletes and performers more holistically by focusing on personal development and overall well-being in addition to teaching psychological skills.</p><p> Perhaps the most provocative suggestion to emerge from the present synthesis is that, as part of a more integrative and holistic approach to psychological training for sport and performance, the Western academic and applied sport psychology communities should begin to look beyond the relaxation and concentration benefits of Eastern mindfulness practices in order to bring into view the potentially broader benefits of the ego-transcendent functions of the spiritual traditions from which these practices derive.</p>

<p> This survey-based observational study was designed to study an individual's Yoga experience as it relates to psychological wellness, physical wellness, and subjective well-being. Men and women ages 18&ndash;85 were recruited though Yoga studio participation and through word of mouth. They answered demographic question as well as items from four differential scales. Dependent variables included physical wellness, life satisfaction, mindfulness, and subjective vitality. </p><p> Data was analyzed using SPSS software. Results indicated that Yoga participants perceive higher levels of mental wellness, physical wellness, and subjective well-being. Additionally, Yoga participants, as compared to non-Yoga participants, were more likely to perceive higher levels of perceived wellness, in almost all domains tested, than exercisers versus nonexercisers. </p><p> The results of this study bring merit to Yoga participants' perception of wellness. Further studies could investigate a variety of topics. Understanding how long it takes a Yoga participant to feel higher levels of perceived wellness may be useful in designing intervention studies. Additionally, looking at different styles of Yoga, specifically &amacr;sana, meditation, and pranayama techniques, and implementation (home versus studio) would be useful in the design of future research studies. </p><p> Anecdotally, most Yoga participants would agree that practicing Yoga benefits their overall wellness. This study offers empirical evidence that Yoga participants experience higher levels of perceived wellness than non-Yoga participants. This research is significant as it validates the role Yoga plays in the health and well-being of participants. </p><p> Keywords: Yoga, Wellness, Well-Being, Quantitative, Observational, Life Satisfaction, Mindfulness, Survey.</p>

<p> Childhood obesity rates have increased three-fold since 1980 and up to 80% of obese children become obese adults. Since young children are forming habits that they will carry with them into adulthood, preschool represents an ideal setting to instill proper physical activity habits. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to assess the amount of physical activity in preschool children during three different recess conditions on separate days: <i>free play, structured play</i> and a <i>control</i> (non-active) condition. </p><p> Physical activity levels were measured in preschool children <i> (N</i> = 22) during three, 30-minute recess conditions; <i>control, structured play</i> recess, and <i>free play</i> recess. Children wore accelerometers for the duration the school day (165 minutes) for three days. Accelerometer counts during the recess sessions and for the entire school day were recorded. Each recess condition was completed on a separate day, but all during the same week. After all three recess conditions had been completed; the child was asked which recess period they preferred. </p><p> Children accumulated significantly <i>(p </i>= 0.001) more accelerometer counts during recess and for the entire school day in the <i> free play</i> (570 &plusmn; 460 counts.min^-1 at recess; 632 &plusmn; 232 counts.min^-1 during school day) and <i> structured</i> (1,416 &plusmn; 448 counts.min^-1 at recess; 629 &plusmn; 200 counts.min^-1 during school day) recess conditions versus the <i>control</i> condition (570 &plusmn; 460 counts.min^-1 at recess; 462 &plusmn; 200 counts.min^-1 during school day). Accelerometer counts during recess and for the entire school day were not different (<i>p</i> = 0.9) between the <i>free play</i> and <i>structured</i> recess conditions. All children indicated that they preferred either the <i>structured play</i> (55%) or <i>free play</i> (45%) recess conditions over the <i> control</i> recess condition. </p><p> Presently both a <i>structured play</i> and <i>free play </i> recess condition were equally successful in increasing physical activity behavior and were preferred versus a non-active recess condition. Providing pre-school children with the opportunity to be physically active during recess successfully increases physical activity during the school day and is preferable to a sedentary recess.</p>

<p> Objective: While brief bouts of exercise improve cognitive function, more prolonged exercise can suppress attention and executive function. Dehydration and heat exposure are known contributors to these deficits, though the role of blood sugar changes during exercise in cognitive dysfunction is less understood at this time. The current study sought to clarify the independent contribution of blood glucose levels to cognitive function following demanding exercise. </p><p> Method: Healthy adult males (N= 10, age= 21.9 +/- 1.97 years) presented for two counterbalanced experimental trials in a 100 degrees F heated chamber. Each experimental trial consisted of BASELINE glucose and cognitive function assessments, as measured by the Logical Relations (LR) and Running Memory Continuous Performance Task (RMCPT) subtests of the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics- 4th Edition (ANAM4). Participants then completed 120 minutes of exercise on a cycle ergometer, with glucose and cognitive function measured POST-EXERCISE. Next, participants rehydrated with a zero-sugar or full-sugar sports beverage, with measures of glucose and cognitive function repeated immediately POST-REHYDRATION. Finally, after a 15-minute recovery period during which the participants rested while not permitted to drink, they completed experimental measures an additional time, at POST-RECOVERY. </p><p> Results: Physiological response to the experimental trials was similar across conditions. Participants demonstrated significantly reduced blood glucose levels (F(1,9)=16.93, p&lt;0.01) and lost an average of 2.57% of their body weight following exercise. Contrary to hypotheses, repeated measures ANOVA showed performance on LR did not change from BASELINE to POST-EXERCISE and actually declined from POST-EXERCISE to POST-REHYDRATION (F(1,9)=9.44, p=0.01). Performance on RMCPT improved from BASELINE to POST-EXERCISE (F(19)=5.43, p&lt;0.05) and the zero-sugar condition produced gains from POST-REHYDRATION to POST-RECOVERY (F(1,9)=6.45, p=0.03) relative to the full-sugar condition. </p><p> Conclusion: Contrary to past studies, cognitive function did not universally decline with strenuous exercise, despite reduced blood glucose levels. Performances on an attention measure increased following exercise and were unexpectedly better at POST-RECOVERY for the zero- versus the full-sugar condition. However, executive functioning was stable to POST-EXERCISE and declined following rehydration. The exact mechanisms responsible for this pattern of findings are unclear, but likely involve a combination of limited core temperature increase and dehydration level, reactivity to blood sugar fluctuations, and multiple possible variables not assessed in the current study such as neurotransmitter and blood lactate levels, brain temperature, physiological arousal, and task engagement. Future studies are needed to better understand the inconsistent findings across the literature, as a significant number of individuals engage in strenuous and prolonged exercise regularly, including those involved in service positions (i.e., military personnel and firefighters). Articulating the mechanisms at play in this phenomenon may increase safety and improve performance. </p>

<p> The backcountry skiing population has increased significantly over the past ten years. Current sales of backcountry ski and rescue gear outpace more traditional alpine, telemark, and snowboarding equipment. As higher numbers of people head into avalanche terrain more fatal accidents are occurring, human triggered avalanches being the primary cause of death. In the late 1980s there were an average of 11 avalanche related deaths per year in the United States. That number has risen to an average of 30 over the past five years. Over that time avalanche specific rescue gear has been quick to adapt to the changing needs of backcountry skiers. However, over that same period of time theoretical approaches to risk management have been slow to adjust to the community's changing needs. Consequently, this study examined the preemptive decisions and the risk perceptions skiers held as they prepared to enter Tuckerman Ravine. Results show that 69% of the survey population did not have formal avalanche training. Despite significant technological advances 56% of the survey population did not have everyone in their group carry a beacon, shovel and probe. Fifty-one percent of the survey population strongly disagreed with frequent beacon practice. However, a skier was more likely to practice with their beacon if they had taken a formal avalanche course. Women were less likely to feel as though the trip were a failure if goals were not met. Additionally, the underrepresentation of women in this study (<i>n</i>=4) required an assessment of broader gender disparities within the backcountry skiing community. Quantitative and qualitative results show a lack of female leadership among recreational backcountry skiers. This leadership gap limits mentoring opportunities and decreases accessibility to the community for novice female backcountry skiers. The lack of gender diversification has significant affects on the decision-making process. This study concludes that dual-process cognitive methods and multilayered risk management protocols can increase margins of safety and encourage diverse perspectives within the larger backcountry skiing community. This paper suggests that because backcountry skiing involves the interconnection between complex adaptive systems and complex physical systems skiers should adopt a systems thinking approach to their decision-making processes.</p><p> <i>Keywords:</i> Systems thinking, avalanches, dual-process cognition, complexity, preemptive decision making, risk management, female backcountry leadership, risk perception, human triggered avalanches.</p>

<p> <b>Context</b>: Entry-level athletic trainers enter the workforce with the skills taught to them by athletic training programs (ATPs) using the Competencies developed by our accrediting body. </p><p> <b>Objective</b>: These competencies are developed using data collected from athletic trainers in the field with no input from the consumers of athletic training services. </p><p> <b>Design</b>: This study used a 3-round Delphi questionnaire. </p><p> <b>Setting</b>: Secondary schools located South Louisiana. </p><p> <b>Participants</b>: Six experts in the field of athletic training. </p><p> <b>Data Collection and Analysis</b>: In round 1, participants were first asked to identify individual skills within predetermined skill categories created from the Competencies and existing research. In rounds 2 and 3, participants ranked and rated their responses from round 1. Using Delphi methodology with qualitative and quantitative analysis, a Duty-Task List (DTL) was created from the data, which identified the essential skills for entry-level athletic trainers. </p><p> <b>Results</b>: Ranking of the skill categories produced four tiers, the top tier consisting of skill categories developed from the Competencies. The bottom tier consisted of two items, both from the Competencies: use of evidence-based medicine in practice and therapeutic interventions. Data further revealed communication, its many different forms, was the most important individual skill for entry-level athletic trainers. </p><p> <b>Conclusions</b>: The Delphi methodology used in this study was once again shown to be as effective as DACUM in producing an industry-supported DTL. In doing so, the participants gave a clear conceptualization of the essential skills needed as an entry-level athletic trainer, while also identifying some skills missing from the Competencies. Consideration should be given to the consumers of athletic training services when the next version of the Competencies is created. The athletic trainers on the panel consistently ranked higher skill categories from the Competencies, while the administrators on the panel ranked the non-competency skill categories higher. Additionally, there is still some resistance to increased use evidence in practice, which may be further proof of the chasm between what is considered desirable by clinical setting athletic trainers and academic setting athletic trainers.</p>

<p> Research on motor learning between old and young adults has shown that young adults benefit from high levels contextual interference (CI) and perform faster than older adults. This project analyzed retention performance in young and older adults with high CI and low CI from a previously completed study for insights about similarities and differences in motor retention. Specifically, young (21-39 years) and old (>71 years) participants performed under random (high CI) and blocked (low CI) practice to determine which practice condition facilitated the retention of motor performance. Participants moved the lever either in random or in blocked fashion to achieve a target position of20&deg;, 30&deg;, 40&deg;, and 50&deg;. Data analysis was completed for movement accuracy and the movement pattern kinematics. Results indicated that random practice led to accurate motor skill learning than blocked practice; older adults were slower as compared to young; but, there was no age related difference found in terms of movement accuracy and consistency. These findings indicate that older adults move slower, but appear to learn movements in similar way to their younger cohorts.</p>