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Thesis (M.E.F.E.)--University of Canterbury, 2007. / Typescript (photocopy). Includes bibliographical references (p. 121-125). Also available via the World Wide Web.

The objective of this thesis is to explore the properties of supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2). In addition, the feasibility of building a small-scale low cost system will be explained. A supercritical fluid is a fluid which exhibits properties between liquid and gas with liquid like densities and viscosities similar to a gas. Since the discovery of supercritical fluids in 1822, the use of supercritical fluids, specifically supercritical CO2, has grown in popularity. The application of supercritical CO2 has continued to grow in industrial applications since the 1970’s. Supercritical CO2’s has many beneficial properties as a “green” solvent. Supercritical CO2 as a solvent is able to be implemented in a wide range of applications from aerospace, microchip manufacturing, food production, biomedical, pharmaceutical, dry-cleaning, and many more. This thesis project included designing, building and testing a supercritical CO2 extraction apparatus that examines the use of supercritical CO2 as a solvent in the extraction process of decaffeinating coffee. Due to the fact that supercritical CO2 requires high pressure operating conditions, the apparatus design is important not only for function but also for safety. In the description portion of this paper, design considerations related to each component’s function and their specific roles in the overall system are clearly stated. Furthermore, the build process is outlined along with the overall step-by-step operation of the apparatus. Different methods of data measurements are taken while the system is running, in order to interpret the apparatus’ overall functionality. Through the exploration of this experimental data, the results were compared between different operating parameters. In order to determine the feasibility of the supercritical apparatus, the devise was tested by applying the supercritical CO2 as a solvent for the extraction of caffeine from coffee beans. Analysis of the analytical data recorded from experimental testing confirms that the apparatus produced supercritical CO2. After testing specific operating conditions, it is proven that the supercritical CO2 is able to function as a “green” solvent in this small-scale system. The experimental results from these analytical runs are compared with theoretical maximums in order to determine the efficiency of the devise. Lastly, the paper presents an overview including lessons learned from the design process and from the information gathered. Data from experimental testing is interpreted and the system design is reevaluated with suggestions for future improvements.

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The current trend in microelectronics is to manufacture devices with increased computational powers and reduced size. These devices with increased power densities are consequently subject to extreme thermal loads. Thermal management of these power loads is extremely challenging. The presence of the hotspots can make this challenge even more difficult. Jet impingement cooling is one of the top candidates for removing such extreme heat fluxes in microelectronics. Jet impingement cooling can achieve heat transfer coefficients (HTCs) due to its normal incident flow-field and ability to thin the local thermal boundary layer in the stagnation region. This dissertation presents the hotspot cooling performance for a confined jet impingement cooling configuration. This dissertation is divided into two parts. The first part presents the experimental data attained for single-phase water jet impingement cooling. Also investigated is the spatial dependence of the HTC relative to the offset between the jet/wall stagnation point and the center of the local hotspot. A theoretical model to predict the HTC as a function of jet-to-hotspot offset ratio and heating frequency is also derived. The second part presents hotspot cooling performance for the two-phase confined jet cooling performance. Electrically non-conductive fluids such as Novec 7100, Novec 7200, FC 72, and Ethanol were used as coolants for this part of the study. This study investigates the nucleate boiling regime as a function of the Reynolds number/Jet Velocity for these fluids. Additionally, this dissertation also presents the nucleate boiling regime as a function of the distance between the hotspot center and the jet stagnation point. Finally, a stagnation zone CHF prediction model is derived. Findings from this research will help thermal control engineers write active cooling algorithms to maintain the desired temperature at minimal pumping cost. This research will also help thermal designers to select appropriate coolants and design the device.

The present study experimentally investigates the heat transfer capability of supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO2) single-jet impingement. The evaluated jet Reynolds number range is between 80,000 and 1,000,000, with a non-dimensional jet-to-target surface spacing of 2.8. CO2-impinging jet stagnation conditions were maintained at approximately 20 MPa and a temperature of 673 K for most experiments. The goal is to understand how changes in the aforementioned parameters influence heat transfer between the working fluid and the heated surface. Additionally, due to the elevated Reynolds numbers and difference in thermodynamic properties between air and CO2, air-derived impingement correlations may not be appropriate for CO2 impingement; these correlations will be evaluated against experimental sCO2 impingement data. At the time of this study, no sCO2 impingement data was available relevant to sCO2 power cycles. The target surface is a 1.5-inch diameter copper block centered on the 3mm jet orifice. A mica heating element bolted to the bottom of the copper block provides a uniform heat flux. Thermocouples embedded in the copper block are used to determine the surface temperature. Nusselt numbers obtained from experimental sCO2 data are compared to area-averaged Nusselt numbers from air-derived correlations. The comparisons showed that air correlations drastically underpredict the heat transfer when sCO2 is used as the working fluid. A modified sCO2 correlation using experimental data at discussed conditions is derived based on an existing air correlation.

The continuous growth and demand of increased operating performances of electronics has brought about an increase in the chip power density posing threat to the thermal management of these devices. Although numerous thermal solutions ranging from passive to active cooling together with a variety of working fluids have been adopted, however, the question whether these available cooling methods could meet up with the ever-growing need for increased operating performances is a concerning one. Jet impingement cooling has been effectively used in many industrial applications due to its high heat transfer capability. The limited study at the micro scale suggests that it exhibits excellent heat transfer performance relative to conventional parallel flow in microchannels. Recently, Carbon dioxide in its supercritical state (304 K and 7.3 MPa) has been proven to be an excellent working fluid in dissipating high heat fluxes. Owing to the properties of this fluid (sCO2) and its high specific heat near the pseudocritical point, the heat transfer rate can be enhanced significantly compared traditional working fluids. However, knowledge about the heat transfer characteristics of micro jet impingement with Carbon dioxide in this state are lacking. In addition, flow boiling has been recognized to significantly enhance heat transfer rate due to its large thermal capacity giving an opportunity to further enhance the cooling ability of Carbon dioxide. In line of this continuous innovation the flow and the heat transfer characteristic of micro jet impingement with CO2 in both single-phase and two-phase were experimentally studied. A micro fluidic device was manufactured leveraging MEMS techniques. The micro device included a circular serpentine heater of diameter 2.01 mm and three resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) sputtered on a glass substrate made of fused silica, providing heating and temperature measurements, respectively. The heater, RTDs and their vias were sputtered with the calculated lengths, widths and thicknesses to achieve the desired resistances. The RTDs were arranged on the heater in a concentric manner to measure the average radial temperature distribution as the flow was assumed to be symmetric. The effects of the working fluid was investigated under governing parameters such as radial position, heat flux, mass flow rate, inlet temperature and inlet pressure. Results from the single-phase investigation showed a higher sensitivity of the heat transfer rate to the proximity to the pseudocritical temperature of the fluid with the optimum heat transfer rate recorded around the pseudocritical temperature subject to the increased specific heat around this region. By utilizing the flow boiling process, a further enhancement was observed pre the critical heat flux condition, suggesting a need to operating within the nucleate boiling region in its industrial adoption. It was recorded that the single jet performed better than the multi jet as a result of the interjet spacing which governs the effect of the colliding jets. Finally, several correlations with minimal mean absolute errors were introduced due to discrepancies from literatures.