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Due to constraints and changes in operating conditions, heat exchangers are often forced to operate under conditions of transitional flow. However, the heat transfer and flow behaviour in this regime is relatively unknown. By describing the transitional characteristics it would be possible to design heat exchangers to operate under these conditions and improve the efficiency of the system. The purpose of this study was to experimentally measure the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of smooth tubes at a constant heat flux in the transitional flow regime. The measurements were used to describe the flow behaviour of this regime and attempt to develop a correlation that can be used in the design of a heat exchanger. An experimental set-up was developed, consisting of an overall set-up, a removable test section as well as a controller, which ensured a uniform heat flux boundary. The test section allowed for the measurement of the temperature along the length of the test section, the pressure drop across the test section, the heat flux input and the flow rate. The measurements were used to determine the heat transfer coefficients and friction factor of the system. Three test sections were developed with outer diameters of 6, 8 and 10 mm in order to investigate the influence of heat exchanger size. Each test section was subject to four different heat flux cases of approximately 1 500, 3 000, 4 500 and 6 000 W/m2. The experiments covered a Reynolds number range of 450 to 10 300, a Prandtl number range of 4 to 7, a Nusselt number range of 2.3 to 67, and a Grashoff number range of 60 to 23 000. Good comparison was found between the measurements of this experiment and currently available literature. The experiments showed a smooth transition from laminar to turbulent flow with the onset of transition dependent on the heat flux of the system and with further data capturing, a correlation can be found to describe the Nusselt number in the transitional flow regime. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering / unrestricted

This thesis describes an experimental study of the air flow in ventilating ducts in the stators of electric motors and/or generators of conventional design. The objective was to facilitate prediction of local heat transfer coefficients in ventilating ducts. Various flow phenomena were observed and compared with theoretical predictions. While the theory usually used for similar cases was found o be inapplicable, a related theory was found that checked well with experimental results. A stall phenomenon was observed under certain identified conditions. Useful relationships for predicting the flow details were obtained. The relevance of the work is discussed and future work is proposed. / Thesis / Master of Engineering (MEngr)

Master of Science / Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering / Steven Eckels / The current research presents the experimental investigation of heat transfer and flow characteristics of sonic multiphase flow in a converging-diverging nozzle. R134a and R123 are used in this study. Four different nozzle assemblies with two different throat sizes (2.43mm and 1.5 mm with 1° growth angle with the centerline of the nozzle in the diverging section) and two different heater lengths (200 mm and 125 mm) were tested. Each test section was an assembly of aluminum nozzle sections. The experimental facility design allowed controlling three variables: throat velocity, inlet temperature, back pressure saturation temperature. The analysis used to find the average heat transfer of the fluid to each nozzle section. This was achieved by measuring the nozzle wall temperature and fluid pressure in a steady state condition. Two methods for finding the average heat flux in sonic nozzle were included in the data analysis: infinite contact resistance and zero contact resistance between nozzle sections. The input variables ranges were 25 °C and 30 °C for inlet temperature and back pressure saturation temperatures, 1100-60,000 kg/m[superscript]2s for mass flux, and 1.4-700 kW/m[superscript]2 heat flux. The effect of the mass flux and heat flux on the average two-phase heat transfer coefficients was investigated. The flow quality, Mach number(M), and Nusselt number ratio ([phi]) were also calculated for each section of the nozzle. As the fluid flowed through the nozzle, the pressure of the liquid dropped below the inlet saturation pressure of the liquid due to sonic expansion in the nozzle. This temperature drop was significantly lower in the case of R134a than R123. The results showed that the two-phase heat transfer coefficients were above of 30000 W/m^2 K in the first 75 mm of the nozzle, and they decreased along the nozzle. The Mach number profile appeared similar to the temperature profile, and the fluid was in the sonic region as long as temperature of the fluid dropped in the nozzle. Nusselt number ratios were compared with the Mach numbers and showed that the Nusselt number ratio were increased in the sonic region. The results showed that the length of the sonic region was larger for R123 than for R134a, and the Mach numbers were higher for R123. The Nusselt ratios of R123 were low compared to the R134a cases, and the trend in the Nusselt ratios was notably different as well.

Thesis (MScEng (Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The feasibility of a closed loop thermosyphon for the Reactor Cavity Cooling System of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor has been the subject of many research projects. Difficulties identified by previous studies include the hypothetical inaccuracies of heat transfer coefficient correlations available in literature. The aim of the research presented here is to develop inside-pipe heat transfer correlations that are specific to the current design of the RCCS. In order to achieve this, a literature review is performed which identifies reactors which employ closed loop thermosyphons and natural circulation. The literature review also explains the general one-dimensional two-fluid conservation equations that form the basis for numerical modelling of natural circulation loops. The literature review lastly discusses available heat transfer coefficient correlations with the aim of identifying over which ranges and under which circumstances these correlations are considered accurate. The review includes correlations commonly used in natural circulation modelling in the nuclear industry in aims of identifying correlations applicable to the modelling of the proposed RCCS. One of the objectives of this project is to design and build a one-third-height-scale model of the RCCS. Shortcomings of previous experimental models were assessed and, as far as possible, compensated for in the design of the model. Copper piping is used, eliminating material and surface property uncertainties. Several sight glasses are incorporated in the model, allowing for the visual identification of two-phase flow regimes. An orifice plate is used allowing for bidirectional flow measurement. The orifice plate, thermocouples and pipe-in-pipe heat exchangers are calibrated in-situ to minimize experimental error and aid repeatability. Twelve experiments are performed with data logging occurring every ten seconds. The results presented here are limited to selected single and two-phase flow operating mode results. Error analyses and repeatability of experimental measurements for single and two-phase operating modes as well as cooling water mass flow rates are performed, to show repeatability of experimental results. These results are used to mathematically determine the experimental inside-pipe heat transfer coefficients for both the evaporator and condenser sections. Trends in the heat transfer coefficient profiles are identified and the general behaviour of the profiles is thoroughly explained. The RCCS is modelled as a one-dimensional system. Correlations for the friction factor, heat transfer coefficient, void fraction and two-phase frictional multiplier are identified. The theoretical heat transfer coefficients are calculated using the mathematical model and correlations identified in the literature review. Fluid parameters are evaluated using experimentally determined temperatures and mass flow rates. The resulting heat transfer coefficient profiles are compared to experimentally determined profiles, to confirm the hypothesis that existing correlations do not accurately predict the inside-pipe heat transfer coefficients. The experimentally determined coefficients are correlated to 99% confidence intervals. These generated correlations, along with identified and established twophase heat transfer coefficient correlations, are used in a mathematical model to generate theoretical coefficient profiles. These are compared to the experimentally determined coefficients to show prediction accuracy. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die haalbaarheid van ‘n natuurlike sirkulasie geslote lus vir die Reaktor Holte Verkoeling Stelsel (RHVS) van die Korrelbed Modulêre Kern-Reaktor (KMKR) is die onderwerp van talle navorsings projekte. Probleme geïdentifiseer in vorige studies sluit in die hipotetiese onakkuraatheid van hitte-oordrag koëffisiënt korrelasies beskikbaar in literatuur. Die doel van die navorsing aangebied is om binne-pyp hitte-oordrag koëffisiënt korrelasies te ontwikkel spesifiek vir die huidige ontwerp van die RHVS. Ten einde dit te bereik, word ‘n literatuurstudie uitgevoer wat kern-reaktors identifiseer wat gebruik maak van natuurlike sirkulasie lusse. Die literatuurstudie verduidelik ook die algemene een-dimensionele twee-vloeistof behoud vergelykings wat die basis vorm vir numeriese modellering van natuurlike sirkulasie lusse. Die literatuurstudie bespreek laastens beskikbare hitte-oordrag koëffisiënt korrelasies met die doel om te identifiseer vir welke massavloei tempo waardes en onder watter omstandighede hierdie korrelasies as korrek beskou is. Die ontleding sluit korrelasies in wat algemeen gebruik word in die modellering van natuurlike sirkulasie in die kern industrie met die hoop om korrelasies vir gebruik in die modellering van die voorgestelde RHVS te identifiseer. Een van die doelwitte van die projek is om ‘n een-derde-hoogte-skaal model van die RHVS te ontwerp en te bou. Tekortkominge van vorige eksperimentele modelle is geidentifiseer en, so ver as moonlik, voor vergoed in die ontwerp van die model. Koper pype word gebruik wat die onsekerhede van materiaal en opperkvlak eindomme voorkom. Verkseie deursigtige polikarbonaat segmente is ingesluit wat visuele identifikasie van twee-fase vloei regimes toelaat. ‘n Opening plaat word gebruik om voorwaartse en terugwaartse vloeimeting toe te laat. Die opening plaat, termokoppels en hitte uitruilers is gekalibreer in plek om eksperimentele foute te verminder en om herhaalbaarheid te verseker. Twaalf eksperimente word uitgevoer en data word elke tien sekondes aangeteken. Die resultate wat hier aangebied word, is beperk tot geselekteerde enkel- en tweefase vloei meganismes van werking. Fout ontleding en herhaalbaarheid van eksperimentele metings, om die herhaalbaarheid van eksperimentele resultate te toon. Hierdie is gebruik om wiskundig te bepaal wat die eksperimentele binne-pyp hitte-oordrag koëffisiënte is vir beide die verdamper en kondenseerder afdelings. Tendense in die hitte-oordrag koëffisiënt profiele word geïdentifiseer en die algemene gedrag van die profiles is deeglik verduidelik. Die RHVS is gemodelleer as 'n een-dimensionele stelsel. Korrelasies vir die wrywing faktor, hitte-oordrag koëffisiënte, leegte-breuk en twee-fase wrywings vermenigvuldiger word geïdentifiseer. Die teoretiese hitte-oordrag koëffisiënte word bereken deur middle van die wiskundige model en korrelasies wat in literatuur geidentifiseer is. Vloeistof parameters is geëvalueer met eksperimenteel bepaalde temperature en massa-vloei tempos. Die gevolglike hitte-oordrag koëffisiënt profiles is vergelyk met eksperimentele profiele om die hipotese dat die bestaande korrelasies nie die binne-pyp hitte-oordrag koëffisiënte akkuraat voorspel nie, te bevestig. Die eksperimenteel bepaalde koëffisiënte is gekorreleer en die gegenereerde korrelasies, saam met geïdentifiseerde twee-fase hitte-oordrag koëffisiënt korrelasies, word gebruik in 'n wiskundige model om teoretiese koëffisiënt profiele te genereer. Dit word dan vergelyk met die eksperimenteel bepaalde hitteoordrag koëffisiënte om die akkuraatheid van voorspelling te toon. Tekortkominge in die teoretiese en eksperimentele model word geïdentifiseer en aanbevelings gemaak om hulle aan te spreek in die toekoms.

Recentemente, observa-se o crescimento do número de trocadores de calor baseados em microcanais devido a necessidade de transferência de elevadas taxas de calor utilizando dispositivos compactos. Tubos de calor, trocadores de calor compactos para equipamentos eletrônicos e controle térmico de satélites, sistemas de condicionamento de ar para automóveis, escritórios e residências são exemplos de aplicações para condensação em canais de diâmetro reduzido. No entanto, na literatura encontra-se reduzido número de estudos experimentais tratando da condensação no interior de canais com diâmetros inferiores a 3 mm, os quais geralmente envolvem refrigerantes com elevado potencial de aquecimento global (GWP). Neste contexto, o presente estudo apresenta uma revisão crítica da literatura envolvendo critérios de transição entre padrões de escoamento, perda de pressão por atrito e coeficiente de transferência de calor durante a condensação no interior de canais convencionais e de micro-escala (minicanais). Levantou-se resultados para o gradiente de pressão por atrito e coeficiente de transferência de calor em aparato experimental localizado na Universidade de Pádua (Università Degli Studi di Padova) para os fluidos refrigerante R1234ze(E) e R32 (GWP de 550 e 6, respectivamente), temperatura de saturação de 40°C, fluxo de calor até 35 kW/m², grau de sub-resfriamento da parede entre 2 e 10 K, velocidade mássicas entre 55 e 275 kg/m²s e título de vapor de 0 a 1. Os dados foram levantados em seção de teste composta por 36 minicanais com diâmetro hidráulico de 1,6 mm e geometria retangular, com o efeito de resfriamento obtido através de água resfriada escoando em contra-corrente ao refrigerante. Os dados experimentais levantados para o gradiente de pressão por atrito e o coeficiente de transferência de calor foram comparados com métodos de previsão da literatura, concluindo que as correlações propostas por Jige, Inoue e Koyama (2016) fornecem as melhores previsões. O comportamento do coeficiente de transferência de calor foi analisado com foco nos mecanismos físicos predominantes durante a condensação. A partir desta análise concluiu-se o predomínio de efeitos de tensão superficial em velocidades mássicas reduzidas e de arrasto em velocidades mássicas elevadas. Este estudo também apresenta uma avaliação comparativa do desempenho dos refrigerantes R1234ze(E) e R32 em relação ao R134a (GWP de 1300) baseada na taxa de transferência de calor por unidade de potência de bombeamento e no potencial de transferência de calor, conforme o critério proposto por Cavallini et al. (2010). Esta análise revelou o desempenho superior para o refrigerante R32 seguido do R134a, com o R1234ze(E) apresentando o pior resultado, independentemente da velocidade mássica. / Recently, micro-scale channels are increasingly being used to combine high heat transfer rates and high degree of compactness. Condensation inside small diameter channels can be found in several applications such as heat pipes, thermal management of electronic equipments, spacecraft thermal control, automotive and residential air conditioning systems, heat pumps and refrigeration systems. However, despite of its importance, few studies concerning condensation inside minichannels (DH < 3 mm) involving low GWP (Global Warming Potential) refrigerants are found in the literature. In this context, initially, this study presents a critical review on the literature involving transition criteria on two-phase flow patterns for micro- and macro-scale conditions, frictional pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient during condensation inside channels. Experimental results for frictional pressure gradient and heat transfer coefficient obtained in apparatus located at the University of Padua (Università Degli Studi di Padova) are carefully analysed. The database includes results for the refrigerants R1234ze(E) and R32 (GWP of 550 and 6, respectively), saturation temperature of 40°C, heat flux up to 35 kW/m², fluid and wall temperature diference up to 10 K, mass velocity in the range of 55 to 275 kg/m²s and vapor quality between 0 and 1. The test section is composed of 36 rectangular minichannels with hydraulic diameter of 1.6 mm. The refrigerant is cooled by water flowing. From a comparison of experimental data for frictional pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient, and prediction methods available in literature, the methods proposed by Jige, Inoue e Koyama (2016) were ranked as the best ones. During the data analyses, focus was put on in order to relate the heat transfer coefficient behavior with the prevailing mecanisms during condensation. Based on this carefull analysis, the predominance of surface tension effects was pointed out under conditions of low mass velocities and condensation inside rectangular minichannels. On the other hand, for high mass velocities shear stress effects prevailed. Also, it has been presented a comparative evaluation of the performance of the refrigerants R1234ze(E), R32 and R134a (GWP of 1300) based on the following criteria: (i) heat transfer rate per unit of power pumping; and (ii) a penalty factor based on the heat transfer potential proposed by Cavallini et al. (2010). According to this evaluation, independently of the mass velocity, the refrigerant R32 was ranked as the one presenting the best performance, followed by R134a ranked as the second best. The refrigerant R1234ze(E) provided the worst performance among them all.

Recentemente, observa-se o crescimento do número de trocadores de calor baseados em microcanais devido a necessidade de transferência de elevadas taxas de calor utilizando dispositivos compactos. Tubos de calor, trocadores de calor compactos para equipamentos eletrônicos e controle térmico de satélites, sistemas de condicionamento de ar para automóveis, escritórios e residências são exemplos de aplicações para condensação em canais de diâmetro reduzido. No entanto, na literatura encontra-se reduzido número de estudos experimentais tratando da condensação no interior de canais com diâmetros inferiores a 3 mm, os quais geralmente envolvem refrigerantes com elevado potencial de aquecimento global (GWP). Neste contexto, o presente estudo apresenta uma revisão crítica da literatura envolvendo critérios de transição entre padrões de escoamento, perda de pressão por atrito e coeficiente de transferência de calor durante a condensação no interior de canais convencionais e de micro-escala (minicanais). Levantou-se resultados para o gradiente de pressão por atrito e coeficiente de transferência de calor em aparato experimental localizado na Universidade de Pádua (Università Degli Studi di Padova) para os fluidos refrigerante R1234ze(E) e R32 (GWP de 550 e 6, respectivamente), temperatura de saturação de 40°C, fluxo de calor até 35 kW/m², grau de sub-resfriamento da parede entre 2 e 10 K, velocidade mássicas entre 55 e 275 kg/m²s e título de vapor de 0 a 1. Os dados foram levantados em seção de teste composta por 36 minicanais com diâmetro hidráulico de 1,6 mm e geometria retangular, com o efeito de resfriamento obtido através de água resfriada escoando em contra-corrente ao refrigerante. Os dados experimentais levantados para o gradiente de pressão por atrito e o coeficiente de transferência de calor foram comparados com métodos de previsão da literatura, concluindo que as correlações propostas por Jige, Inoue e Koyama (2016) fornecem as melhores previsões. O comportamento do coeficiente de transferência de calor foi analisado com foco nos mecanismos físicos predominantes durante a condensação. A partir desta análise concluiu-se o predomínio de efeitos de tensão superficial em velocidades mássicas reduzidas e de arrasto em velocidades mássicas elevadas. Este estudo também apresenta uma avaliação comparativa do desempenho dos refrigerantes R1234ze(E) e R32 em relação ao R134a (GWP de 1300) baseada na taxa de transferência de calor por unidade de potência de bombeamento e no potencial de transferência de calor, conforme o critério proposto por Cavallini et al. (2010). Esta análise revelou o desempenho superior para o refrigerante R32 seguido do R134a, com o R1234ze(E) apresentando o pior resultado, independentemente da velocidade mássica. / Recently, micro-scale channels are increasingly being used to combine high heat transfer rates and high degree of compactness. Condensation inside small diameter channels can be found in several applications such as heat pipes, thermal management of electronic equipments, spacecraft thermal control, automotive and residential air conditioning systems, heat pumps and refrigeration systems. However, despite of its importance, few studies concerning condensation inside minichannels (DH < 3 mm) involving low GWP (Global Warming Potential) refrigerants are found in the literature. In this context, initially, this study presents a critical review on the literature involving transition criteria on two-phase flow patterns for micro- and macro-scale conditions, frictional pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient during condensation inside channels. Experimental results for frictional pressure gradient and heat transfer coefficient obtained in apparatus located at the University of Padua (Università Degli Studi di Padova) are carefully analysed. The database includes results for the refrigerants R1234ze(E) and R32 (GWP of 550 and 6, respectively), saturation temperature of 40°C, heat flux up to 35 kW/m², fluid and wall temperature diference up to 10 K, mass velocity in the range of 55 to 275 kg/m²s and vapor quality between 0 and 1. The test section is composed of 36 rectangular minichannels with hydraulic diameter of 1.6 mm. The refrigerant is cooled by water flowing. From a comparison of experimental data for frictional pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient, and prediction methods available in literature, the methods proposed by Jige, Inoue e Koyama (2016) were ranked as the best ones. During the data analyses, focus was put on in order to relate the heat transfer coefficient behavior with the prevailing mecanisms during condensation. Based on this carefull analysis, the predominance of surface tension effects was pointed out under conditions of low mass velocities and condensation inside rectangular minichannels. On the other hand, for high mass velocities shear stress effects prevailed. Also, it has been presented a comparative evaluation of the performance of the refrigerants R1234ze(E), R32 and R134a (GWP of 1300) based on the following criteria: (i) heat transfer rate per unit of power pumping; and (ii) a penalty factor based on the heat transfer potential proposed by Cavallini et al. (2010). According to this evaluation, independently of the mass velocity, the refrigerant R32 was ranked as the one presenting the best performance, followed by R134a ranked as the second best. The refrigerant R1234ze(E) provided the worst performance among them all.

This thesis deals with an experimental determination of heat transfer coefficients from the surface of the thermal manikin. The main focus of the work lies on separating radiative and convective heat fluxes from the surface of the thermal manikin. Both nude and clothed, standing and seated postures were investigated respectively. The tests were conducted in a constant air temperature (cca 24°C) and a constant wind speed (cca 0,05 m.s-1) environment. The major part of the radiative heat flux was eliminated by a low emissivity coating applied to the surface of the nude thermal manikin, and in the case of clothed manikin by a low emissivity two-piece dress. Favorable results were achieved only in the case of the nude manikin measurements. The measurements were performed across 34 zones that logically represent parts of a human body. Experimental work confirms theoretical expectations in the means of a heat transfer. In addition, the results of this work were compared to results of a similar experimental work. The outcomes of this thesis provide essential information in order to create detailed computational models of a thermal environment. Such models require anatomically specific, separate values of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients.