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The Restoration of Charles 11 to the throne of England in 1660 gave rise to a new form of composition. The “Ode,” loosely patterned on the poetry of Pindar and cast in the form of an address, was written for royal occasions such as birthdays and public events and to welcome returning monarchs from their progresses. The primary feature and intent of this poetry was flattery and adulation. Henry Purcell (1659–1695) set sixteen of these texts to music for the Stuart monarchs, and his contributions are considered to be among the best of the genre. Musically, the English Ode is similar to the Italian cantata but is particularly associated with parallel developments in the English verse anthem. The Ode featured the use of solo and concerted voices, chorus, and orchestra with continuo in alternating vocal movements and choruses. Although similar to the operatic prologues of Lully in France in the 1670s, the Ode was wholly an English invention, having no direct counterpart in France. Purcell is credited with expanding the scope of the court Ode with a wider range and sensitivity to dramatic effect, the inclusion of more colourful orchestral instruments to the basic string group, virtuosic writing for fine performers, and the inclusion of ritornelli, recurring ground basses, and other organizational features which gave coherence and unity to the form. However, until very recently there has been little critical evaluation of these pieces, and they are just now beginning to be recognized as masterpieces. Through analysis, this dissertation focuses on the chronological changes of style seen in Purcell's writing of court Odes, of which there is at least one contribution every year from 1680–1695 (with the exception of 1688, the year of James II's departure). The unity of purpose, as well as performers and instrumentalists available at the court (so that Purcell was not compromised in his writing by a lack of talented forces), offers a unique opportunity to examine how his style changed and matured over time. The disposition of movements, harmony, phrasing, structural organization, and counterpoint—perhaps the most important element of his work as a composer—are discussed in the context of his stylistic and technical development. / Graduate

Mysticism is simply religious experience in its highest manifestations. In Christian mysticism, love is the distinguishing factor; its focal point is the Incarnation. The mystic worships God both In His Transcendence and In His Immanence, his emphasis usually being on one or other of these aspects of His nature. In the seventeenth century, two main mystical traditions existed. One was the orthodox Catholic tradition; the other was more unorthodox in character, stemming from the philosophy of Hermes Trismegistes. The mystic way consists of the five-fold path beginning in Awakening, followed by Purgation, Illumination, the Dark Night of the Soul, and climaxed by Union. The mystic life itself is not vague or escapist: it is a life deified in order that it may be dedicated. Contemplation and activity go hand in hand. Mystical and poetical experience can be differentiated by the direction which each experience takes: the poet returns from his experience with his poem, whereas the mystic pushes on to the fuller vision of God. Turning specifically to George Herbert, I believe he was never fully awakened in the mystical sense; hence, his subsequent experience cannot be considered truly mystical. Nevertheless, there are points of reference and similarities between Herbert and the mystics. His Purgation, however, lacked the fullness of the mystic's experience, for it lacked the most significant attribute of the purgative state, the stimulation of the will. A sense of Illumination, moreover, is never sustained in Herbert. Rarely does he express joy at God's presence. Indeed, he was most like the mystic in his expression of despair. Thus the peace he came to exemplify in his life at Bernerton is truly remarkable in the light of the suffering revealed in his poems. The sense of harmony and peace he ultimately achieved came not through inner peace but through triumph over constant turmoil and despair. Henry Vaughan, on the other hand, experienced, I believe, a true mystic Awakening, accepting the obligations implicit in it, and undergoing, as a consequence, a certain degree of Purgation. His deepest suffering was closely linked with the persecution of the church. His Illumination is best understood through his approach to nature. His treatment of light imagery in nature, however, tends to be misleading in an assessment of his mysticism. I believe that the poems which deal most successfully with light are really philosophical rather than mystical, and that his Illumination, or vision, was essentially that of the poet and not that of the mystic. The vision he captured is, nevertheless, one of the fullest and loveliest to be found in our English poetry. Both Herbert- and Vaughan sought to praise their Maker through the medium of their art. They were deeply spiritual poets though neither can be considered a mystic in the full sense of the word. Each was essentially mystical in his aspirations, nevertheless and In their individual accomplishments each tells us something of the final and full accomplishment of the mystic: Vaughan through his illuminated vision of the world, Herbert through his exemplary life of holiness. / Arts, Faculty of / English, Department of / Graduate

This thesis examines the parallels between the religions of the Far and Middle East and the theatre of Henry de Montherlant. The religions discussed are Hinduism, Buddhism, Zen, Shinto, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Mithraism, Islam and Judaism. Montherlant has referred to all these religions in his Essays and we have sought to demonstrate the underlying syncretism which they constitute in his drama. The pattern we have followed is, firstly to indicate aspects of each sect which compare with Montherlant's plays, next to give evidence of his knowledge of these aspects and finally to show how this influence affects the plays. In our Introduction we outline Montherlant's literary career before turning to his doctrine of syncretism. He is a syncretist because he sees in most religions examples of what he, outside religion, calls 'la qualité', that is a personal attitude of grandeur. Chapter one deals with Hinduism and we have examined its asceticism, its caste system, its treatment of women, certain of its contradictions, and its mysticism. After clarifying these aspects as part of the Hindu faith, we have turned to Montherlant's plays and found parallels between Hinduism and Montherlant's ascetics, between caste and his idea of 'la qualité', his view of women as portrayed in his theatre, his apparent contradictions concerning many things but especially concerning women and sensuality, and, lastly, his examples of mysticism as seen in Le Maître de Santiago, Port-Royal and Le Cardinal d'Espagne. In the second chapter Buddhism presents fewer parallels, indeed many of its typical characteristics would he unattractive to Montherlant. However, Montherlant does accept its asceticism, its original anti-feminism and, to a certain degree, its attitude towards morality and nature. Chapter three concerns the two sects of Japan, Zen and Shinto. Zen is wary of intellectual processes, it encourages a mode of behaviour rather than a mode of thought. This simple creed, with its strict code of honour, contempt for personal gain and death and encouragement of terseness of expression and personal discipline, became the basis for the way of life of the samurai, greatly admired by Montherlant. In several of his plays there is a clash between affection and discipline typical of the samurai knights. Similarly, some of his heroes experience the sudden revelation advocated by Zen, induced by violence or simplicity. There is also evidence of the samurai attitude towards wealth, especially in Le Maître de Santiago, and towards death, particularly in Malatesta, Port-Royal, Le Cardinal d'Espagne and La Guerre civile. This last attitude leads on to a lofty idea of self which is typical both of the samurai and of many of Montherlant's heroes. Zen accepts violence as part of reality and Montherlant sees it as part of 'la qualité' since he deliberately sought violence in sports, bull-fighting and war. His plays abound with violent images, especially La Reine morte, Malatesta and Le Cardinal d'Espagne. Shinto is essentially nationalistic and so compares with the recurrent theme in the drama of Montherlant of the separate community. Groups of people who choose to live by a strict code of behaviour clearly gain Montherlant's sympathy. In his theatre we find several of these groups. The animism of Shinto stresses the harmony of man and nature, man is not divorced from divinity but is part of it. This conception is close to Montherlant's outlook in Inès (La Reine morte) and Malatesta. In chapter four we have grouped the religions of the Middle East: Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Mithraism, Islam and Judaism. Zoroastrianism has a positive attitude towards life which is shared by Montherlant at times. This acceptance of life is overshadowed by the renown of his severe ascetics, but Pasiphaé, Malatesta, Ravier and Don Juan among others indicate the other side to his nature. With Manichaeism there are striking parallels but its influence has probably been indirect through the early Church and the Cathars. Its extreme dualism, separating the evil physical world from the good spiritual world, its distinction between the 'Perfects' and the mere believers and its lyricism are all paralleled in the theatre of Montherlant. Mithraism has also influenced Montherlant. We have emphasised three particular aspects of it; water, sun and the bull, since they all figure significantly in the plays. With its hierarchy of seven grades and its attraction for the Roman soldier, Mithraism offers other parallels with Montherlant's theatre and thought. The influence of Islam has been twofold, firstly through its historical effect on Spain, deeply admired by Montherlant, and through its effect on the North African Arab culture, experienced by Montherlant during his important travels there. Montherlant is attracted by the violence of Islam and, once more, by its mysticism--Sufism. Evidence of this influence can be seen particularly in La Reine morte, Le Maître de Santiago and Le Cardinal d'Espagne, the 'Spanish' plays. The particular aspects of Judaism that we have considered are its monotheism, its idea of separate race with the subsequent feeling of isolation and the theme of guilt. The Christianity of Montherlant's characters refers more to God than to Christ. The idea of race is another example of the community which chooses 'la qualité' and in the case of Judaism this stand has brought about a feeling of isolation which is mirrored by some of Montherlant's heroes. The concept of guilt, a very minor theme, appears in La Reine morte, Fils de personne and Le Cardinal d'Espagne. In our conclusion we have remarked that the parallels which exist between some of the world's religions and Montherlant's theatre are not surprising since a deep religious conviction is dramatic in itself and is thus similar to Montherlant's doctrine of 'la qualité'. Like Catholicism, in which Montherlant detects a rich syncretism, the religions we have examined accept the opposing forces at work in man and attempt to lead him towards an existence which is on a higher level than that of man without religion. Montherlant does not agree with the metaphysics of these religions, but he does agree that 'la qualité' is a condition which is worth striving for. / Arts, Faculty of / French, Hispanic, and Italian Studies, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of this thesis is to study Henry James's use of art objects and art imagery in the delineation of character. I have first endeavoured to briefly outline the basic concepts of art which James embraced and applied in his tales and novels, and have traced, in his literary and art criticism, his developing views of the "real," the "romantic," and the "ideal." James's change in attitude toward the "real" and the "romantic" has been noted in his own work published between 1876 and 1894, and the principal techniques of the painter which he employs have been set forth. In an analysis of three tales: "The Madonna of the Future," "The Liar," and "The Real Thing" I have attempted to illustrate James's view of the nature and function of art and the artist and the problems involved in achieving a satisfactory balance between the real and the ideal. The conclusions reached have been applied to two of James's major novels of his later phase: The Wings of the Dove and The Golden Bowl in an attempt to demonstrate that, using the objet d'art and art imagery (as in the stories examined), James achieves reality of characterization and the complete realization of the ideal in the real. / Arts, Faculty of / English, Department of / Graduate

If not in style at least in the basic subject of his plays, Henry de Montherlant can be termed a thoroughly modern playwright for he, like Samuel Beckett and Eugene Ionesco, deals with the dilemma facing twentieth-century man: that man is nothing in an illusory world devoid of hope. Montherlant does not choose the vehicle of the "anti-théâtre" chosen by Beckett and Ionesco to symbolize the futility of man's life and aspirations but rather creates his plays within the framework of the style of the great classical tragedies of seventeenth-century France. His is a purely psychological theatre in which all external action is kept to a minimum in order to permit a penetrating study of the mind and soul of the hero. Of the four plays chosen for comparison in this thesis, we find that three take place in periods other than the twentieth century. The sixteenth or seventeenth century background does not detract from the plight of modern man, but rather magnifies the intense suffering of man throughout the ages as he struggles towards a deeper awareness of the self and of the world surrounding him. By using men of heroic stature from these bygone eras, Montherlant is able to transcend the contemporary and thus prove that the quest for human values is indeed eternal. Modern man faces the same search for self identity as did medieval or Renaissance man; both must find some way to brave a world of illusions and to rise above the uselessness of their own existence. This thesis is an attempt to show how the Montherlantian hero combats the seeming folly of the "condition humaine." Any study of Montherlant's theatre necessitates a close look at his idea of a protagonist. It will soon be realized that all the heroes of his religious theatre are superior beings; this superiority is not based on wealth or social rank but rather on a contempt for mediocrity in themselves, in others, and in the world about them. The desire for superiority on the part of the hero is revealed in a constant need to reach beyond himself; he becomes, in his own mind at least, a superman of the type created by Nietzsche. The Montherlantian hero is very similar to a martyr for he is completely under the influence of a genuine passion, in this case, the passion of his own degree of superiority. Like the martyr, he is driven by this passion to an uncompromising attitude because he refuses to accept any part of a society which appears to him to be mediocre. For this reason the heroes of Montherlant's Christian vein are almost all estranged from their time and compatriots. Throughout the religious plays this total estrangement takes the form of lack ofunderstanding and communication between the characters; a fear that any demonstration of understanding would only reflect a decrease in the superior qualities of the hero. Montherlant's religious theatre, like his profane theatre, reflects the author's constant search to surpass the hopelessness of human existence. No avenue is left unexplored and Montherlant through his heroes rejects all political, religious, or philosophical "engagements." With the exception of the Cardinal d'Espagne, the religious protagonist refuses to be a part of his particular order or rank because he feels that he is superior to all other members of the group. His role in life, as seen through his eyes, is to achieve a perfect knowledge of the self in order to become a free person; in this respect he is an "être engagé" because he uses the world to his own advantage to obtain this goal of complete and total liberty. However, the more he engages in this inquiry of self knowledge, the more he becomes an "être détaché" because he is unable to bear the mediocrity which he feels surrounds him. The more lucid the Montherlantian hero becomes, the more he realizes the complete futility of human existence. This theme of extreme suffering and the penetrating lucidity of the hero can be traced from the first of Montherlant's plays until the last. With each play the amount of suffering, the degree of lucidity, and the desire for total withdrawal from a hopeless and absurd world are increased. The religious plays magnify the infinitesimal nature of man when compared with a supreme being. With each religious hero, Montherlant presents a character of increasing perception until he finally creates la reine Jeanne as a perfect portrait of someone who has seen in its entirety the nothingness of this world and who has herself become a part of this nothingness. Jeanne la folle is the culmination of Montherlant's philosophy of "Service Inutile", a philosophy designed to aid a person to surpass the "néant" by means of an act which is in itself completely useless. Jeanne has come face to face with this "néant" and she accepts it; she has seen not only the vanity of human existence but also the futility of her own actions; she has stripped the world of all its illusions. Having accepted the "néant" so completely that she has become a part of it, she nevertheless has surpassed the "néant" by means of an act which is the supreme degree of futility. Although she has no illusions about anything in this world, including her unfaithful husband, she glorifies her husband although he is not worth this idolization. Jeanne attains her freedom by means of this act which becomes more beautiful as it becomes totally useless. The portrait of la reine Jeanne, as has been stated, is the peak of Montherlantian philosophy, and the other religious protagonists reflect the various levels of the art of attaining complete liberty. From the first religious hero, the Maître de Santiago, to the Cardinal d'Espagne the lure of the "néant", of this nothingness increases in each character until the Cardinal is finally depicted as the symbol of the dilemma of man: despairing, he can neither believe in himself nor in what he has done throughout his life. He sees the uselessness of it all but he lacks the courage to do the one thing which would liberate him from the overwhelming power of this nothingness; he is unable to destroy what he has created, that is, he cannot commit the most futile act of all, destroying what is already nothing. Like men of every epoch, in the last analysis, he refuses to see himself as he really is. Of the five religious protagonists studied in this thesis, all superior people, all to a certain extent endowed with a remarkable lucidity, the reader learns only of the sure success of one hero, la reine Jeanne, who is able to survive in a world devoid of all illusion and hope. The philosophy of "Service Inutile" is indeed reserved for a very select few - for those who belong to "les gens de qualité." / Arts, Faculty of / French, Hispanic, and Italian Studies, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of this study is to examine dramatic conflict in the plays of Montherlant and its relationship with the author's philosophy which states that the main purpose of life is personal happiness. As a datum of the analysis, it is assumed that the happiness of the individual would increase in proportion as the conflict in his life were reduced, and conversely, that his happiness would decrease in proportion as his conflicts were increased. The ideally situated individual, the happy individual, would be, therefore, he whose life is entirely free of conflict. The analysis we make is confined mainly to the principal conflicts of the plays (those in which the protagonist is the most important personnage) and examines these conflicts from two basically different points of view. The first considers the protagonist in his conflict with others (Chapters one, two and three) and the second examines the inner, psychological conflicts of the same protagonists (Chapters four and five). Chapter one views conflict in the plays as it exists between men and women. In general, the protagonist is a man whose ideals are threatened by a woman. The outcome of their conflicts follows a fairly regular pattern which shows the former favoured at the expense of the latter. In addition, it is seen that the only woman with whom a protagonist can be compatible is she who exists entirely for the man and who is, in effect, only an extension of his own personality. In Chapter two, we deal with the conflicts between protagonists as fathers, and their children. Generally, the conflicts revolve about the efforts of the father to force the child to conform to moral standards specified by him, and although the protagonist rarely succeeds in his efforts, the child almost always suffers at the hands of his father. The only children whom the fathers find wholly worthy of respect are those who mirror his personality in every way, and who even sacrifice themselves for him. The question of the protagonist in conflict with society as a whole is discussed in Chapter three. Montherlant sees society as composed of two kinds of people - on the one hand, the 'superior' individuals and on the other, the 'mediocre' masses. The protagonists of the plays are portrayed as 'superior' individuals. In their conflicts with society, they are almost always successful except in their conflicts with the Church. Their success depends in large part on their capacity to live their own life in spite of society, or to isolate themselves from it. Chapters four and five deal with the inner conflicts of the protagonists whose exterior conflicts have been discussed in the first three chapters. Chapter four examines those protagonists who are aware of their inner conflicts and who suffer from them. In general these personnages have dramatically tragic qualities which stem from their basic lucidity. None of them is 'happy' as Montherlant would define happiness. In Chapter five we consider the protagonists who are unaware of their inner contradictions or are indifferent to them. Their blindness to themselves or their indifference to the inconsistencies which others see in them are in general, factors which contribute to their happiness. Three protagonists emerge from this group as being 'ideal', in that, at the end of the plays in which they are figured, they are completely free of conflict of any kind, and are thus 'happy' in the sense in which Montherlant defines happiness. In the conclusion to our study we see that in their external conflicts (Chapters one, two and three) the protagonists in general are pitted against opponents who seem much weaker than themselves. For this reason, the defeat of the opponent seems to emphasize the egoism and ruthlessness of the protagonist. On the other hand the inner suffering of some of these same protagonists mitigates in large measure their treatment of their opponents and indeed, some of them emerge as truly tragic figures (Chapter four). The fact that 'happiness' in some protagonists (Chapter five) seems to depend not only on ruthlessness and egoism in the protagonist as he deals with others, but also blindness or indifference to his own faults and weaknesses, tend to make these latter protagonists appear somewhat monstruous. We conclude ultimately from our study of dramatic conflict in the theatre of Montherlant that while the plays are generally stimulating emotionally and intellectually, the moral value of the author's philosophy of personal happiness which underlies all conflict in his plays is limited from a humanitarian and spiritual standpoint. / Arts, Faculty of / French, Hispanic, and Italian Studies, Department of / Graduate

Poet, playwright, journalist, and novelist, Henry Fielding produced a striking variety of works in his literary career. A large portion of these works are filled with satire. The numerous farces, burlesques and comedies Fielding produced as a dramatist relied heavily for their appeal on the social, literary and political satire they contained. The irony and derision in these works was directed at specific elements in his society which Fielding felt merited exposure. His pose was that of the Augustan satirist ridiculing the folly he witnessed around him. Fielding's first attempts at prose were also satirical, with many of the targets the same as those he had attacked in his plays. However, the nature of his satire began to change, to take on moral overtones as he began to concentrate on larger, more fundamental problems concerning man and his relation to society. Jonathan Wild, Fielding's most sustained satire in the Augustan manner, is the first of his works to fully reveal the author's preoccupation with moral issues of his day. In this satire Fielding's concern is with the principles that govern human behaviour and the whole question of good and evil in man's nature. This type of moral satire is carried further in Joseph Andrews and Tom Jones where Fielding sets out not only to ridicule society's follies, but also to portray a way of life as a norm of behaviour for the common man. He is no longer the satirist concentrating on the evil in society, for as novelist he must portray society with all its intricate blendings of good and evil. Even in his comic novels,however, Fielding never completely abandoned the role of satirist, and it is the changing nature of the satire in his works as he switched from dramatist to novelist that I discuss in this thesis. / Arts, Faculty of / English, Department of / Graduate

An analysis of the psychological and philosophical dimensions of two central symbols of Henry James's later work, the Maltese cross of The Spoils of Poynton (1897) and the golden bowl of The Golden Bowl (1904), reveals that by 1903 James had assimilated from the late nineteenth century Zeitgeist the essential features of Darwinism, psychic determinism, fin de siècle romanticism, Bergson's élan vital, Henry Adams' equation of spiritual with physical energy or force, and William James's pragmatism. The complex symbolism of the Maltese cross and the golden bowl mainly expresses the destructive potential of romantic idealism and ethical absolutism; hence I conclude that James unconsciously shared Ibsen's attitude toward ideals and idealism, as interpreted by Shaw in The Quintessence of Ibsenism (1891). Two visions of man underlie these novels: (1) the Darwinism-inspired view of man as a being whose animal nature must be sternly repressed by that conscience T. H. Huxley termed "the watchman of society" before either psychic evolution or amelioration of man's general condition could be achieved; (2) the ancient doctrine of man as microcosm and the ethical goal of psychic harmony from which the animal nature is not excluded. The former is ultimately rejected in favor of the latter, as James dramatizes the problem of the ethically sensitive person who is involved in a struggle to fulfil his life-potential. In The Spoils of Poynton, in his presentation of Fleda Vetch, James implicitly rejects renunciation of life for the sake of honor as a valid mode of conduct. In The Golden Bowl, in his presentation of Maggie Verver, he in effect offers a solution to the problem of how the individual should react to evil. James's treatment of the problem of self-fulfilment in these two novels implies his gradual, and to a large extent unconscious, conversion to an ethical pragmatism similar to that advocated by William James. The totally destructive practice of self-sacrifice on the part of the heroine of the first novel gives way in the second novel to a partial self-sacrifice that is not only compatible with self-fulfilment but necessary for psychic development. As static ideals are found to inhibit psychic evolution, the corresponding philosophical change is an implicit reorientation from belief in the validity of immutable ideals to a final intuition that ultimate reality lies in the dynamic archetypes of psychic life. / Arts, Faculty of / English, Department of / Graduate

This thesis attempts to explain some essential aspects of the literature of Henry Miller by concentrating on an explication of three terms as they apply to Miller's novels. The thesis does not take a stance involving a certain critical "distance", that is, it does not deal with an evaluation of the success or failure of his vision, nor with the validity or invalidity of his world. This, I maintain, has been done to excess by most critics of Henry Miller. The thesis indicates in the opening chapter the major outlines of the literary tradition to which Miller belongs, specifically the American romantic-transcendentalist tradition. Further, though not specific reference is made to this tradition in subsequent chapters in describing the movement toward mysticism apparent in Miller's later novels. The main portion of the thesis details the significance of three major terms, apocalypse, creation, and process, as elements which encompass the overall development of Miller's literature. The thesis attempts to show that these terms indicate an unconscious development in the author of a mystical vision or insight where the works themselves serve as a working out of the author's growing understanding of his inner awakening. The final chapter accounts for Miller's later non-fiction as illustrative of his arrived position. Miller has reached a particular kind of "cosmic consciousness" and he regards his life as a parable of the progress of everyman from unconscious unification with all-things (childhood), through knowledge (manhood), to a new stage of conscious unification with the world (maturity). The period intervening between childhood and final spiritual insight is that detailed by his six major novels, which might generally be characterized as a trial by fire or a trip through the hell of the alienated modern world. This thesis, then, is an exposition of the development of the artist through his art. / Arts, Faculty of / English, Department of / Graduate