This thesis examines the changing role of British Columbia's municipal governments in affordable housing policy. In recent years, the federal government of Canada has withdrawn from active involvement in affordable housing provision, and has passed responsibility back to the provinces. The government of British Columbia has, in turn, amended its Municipal Act through Bills 20 (1992), 57 (1993) and 31 (1994), to grant municipal governments increased planning powers in the field of affordable housing. This thesis examines the responses of municipal governments to these changes and specifically investigates whether the decentralization of responsibility has to led to policy innovation. This research question is addressed in three ways. First, through a review of the theoretical literature and legislation, a discussion is presented concerning the issue of decentralization and the ways it has been enacted in the case of housing policy in British Columbia. Secondly, the results of a postal survey of 52 municipalities in British Columbia are presented, reflecting the range of local responses to the provincial housing legislation. Thirdly, case studies, derived from key informant interviews and document analysis in three municipalities (Burnaby, Sidney and Prince George) are presented. These provide more detailed illustrations of housing strategies in different geographical contexts. The research suggests that housing is a dynamic area of public policy in British Columbia, with a distinct pattern of innovation. In particular, some 'entrepreneurial' municipalities exhibited a shorter response time in reacting to the provincial legislation, and have adopted more innovative approaches to housing policy; these in turn, serve as examples to other jurisdictions. The wide range of innovative housing strategies adopted by local governments across the province, which are highlighted in this thesis, suggest that decentralization has ensured the potential for a greater fit between the preferences and needs of a particular locale. To the extent that it provides municipalities with the powers and resources they need, the decentralization policy allows communities to capitalize on their existing strengths and to more readily meet their housing needs.

This thesis examines the changing role of British Columbia's municipal governments in affordable housing policy. In recent years, the federal government of Canada has withdrawn from active involvement in affordable housing provision, and has passed responsibility back to the provinces. The government of British Columbia has, in turn, amended its Municipal Act through Bills 20 (1992), 57 (1993) and 31 (1994), to grant municipal governments increased planning powers in the field of affordable housing. This thesis examines the responses of municipal governments to these changes and specifically investigates whether the decentralization of responsibility has to led to policy innovation. This research question is addressed in three ways. First, through a review of the theoretical literature and legislation, a discussion is presented concerning the issue of decentralization and the ways it has been enacted in the case of housing policy in British Columbia. Secondly, the results of a postal survey of 52 municipalities in British Columbia are presented, reflecting the range of local responses to the provincial housing legislation. Thirdly, case studies, derived from key informant interviews and document analysis in three municipalities (Burnaby, Sidney and Prince George) are presented. These provide more detailed illustrations of housing strategies in different geographical contexts. The research suggests that housing is a dynamic area of public policy in British Columbia, with a distinct pattern of innovation. In particular, some 'entrepreneurial' municipalities exhibited a shorter response time in reacting to the provincial legislation, and have adopted more innovative approaches to housing policy; these in turn, serve as examples to other jurisdictions. The wide range of innovative housing strategies adopted by local governments across the province, which are highlighted in this thesis, suggest that decentralization has ensured the potential for a greater fit between the preferences and needs of a particular locale. To the extent that it provides municipalities with the powers and resources they need, the decentralization policy allows communities to capitalize on their existing strengths and to more readily meet their housing needs. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This thesis reviews the evolution of British Columbia's provincial housing policy and programs from 1945 to the present. This overview permits the identification of what the periods are, what the major policies and programs have been, and what has changed or remained constant through the years. This overview also provides a broader context within which to eventually assess in greater detail, past and present provincial housing policies and programs. A review of federal housing programs and jurisdictional issues provides the context for provincial housing policy. The forty year time span of is divided into three periods: 1945-1972, 1972-1976 and 1976 to the present. The major forms of housing policy intervention in each period are identified through the review of budget speeches, government documents, annual reports, newspaper clippings, published and unpublished reports and discussion with government officials. This thesis finds that during the last forty years, there has never been a serious challenge to the role of urban land and housing markets by B.C. provincial housing policy makers. The encouragement of homeownership for as many households as possible and housing assistance for senior citizens have also been a major and continuous focus of housing policy since the 1950's. It is probable that the homeownership assistance programs have had, however, only a marginal impact on increasing the rate of homeownership. An active seniors' housing construction program was maintained from 1955 to the late 1970's with the majority of units sponsored by non-profit groups. In 1977, the focus of seniors' housing assistance changed from a construction assistance approach to an income assistance approach. Although the names and details of homeownership and senior citizen housing assistance programs continuously changed, the goals and content of the programs remained essentially the same. In the analysis of housing policy trends it is found that the philosophical position of the provincial government determined its "terms of reference" for housing policy. In the 1945-1972 and 1976-1985 periods, the free enterprise orientation of the governments determined a very narrow role for government housing policy. In the former case, the narrowness of the parameters for housing policy was caused mainly by a belief that housing policy was the responsibility of the federal government, while in the latter case the narrowness was due to a nearly complete reliance on the private sector to provide housing. While the NDP government of the 1972-1976 period had a social democratic orientation, it was still constrained in its ability to effectively deal with housing problems. These constraints included a limited term in office, the emergence of different federal priorities, the lack of financial resources and the resistance within the province to change. It is apparent that these changes in the terms of reference of postwar B.C. housing policy have prevented any chance of a comprehensive and systematic approach to housing problems. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This thesis uses theories of the state in order to explain the City of Vancouver's housing actions from 1900-1973. Theories of the state are used to identify and contribute to an understanding of the constraints and opportunities a municipality faces in intervening in housing. The theoretical discussion, developed by a literature review, is in three major parts. First, the role of the state in capitalist society is discussed. The neo-Marxist perspective of the role of the state is adopted. According to this perspective the state has a two fold role. First the state functions to aid in capital accumulation. Second, the state functions to legitimate the capitalist system. The second part of the discussion rests on theoretical distinctions on the ways in which the state fulfills its role. Pluralist, instrumentalist and corporatist/managerialist perspectives are analyzed and it is concluded that at different times and circumstances it is possible that all three might apply to the way a state acts. The third part of the theoretical discussion is on the local state. The local state is not separate from the state, though it does have some autonomy. In the areas where the local state does have some autonomy the way it acts can be explained by the three differing theoretical perspectives. The history of the City of Vancouver's role in housing is presented by describing policies, programs and plans undertaken by the City from 1900 to 1973. This research was accomplished primarily by reading original government records in the Vancouver City Archives. With respect to housing initiatives, the City was constrained by its financial and jurisdictional ties to the national state. However, this thesis shows that at times the City was able to define its own terms and conditions and exhibit some autonomy. The details of the housing history also show that the City of Vancouver's role was in capital accumulation and the legitimation of capitalism. For most of the period studied the City of Vancouver was the instrument of the capitalist class. However, this neo-Marxist interpretation is tempered by evidence that both the corporate goals of the City itself and the pressure exerted by local interest groups have had a significant impact on the City of Vancouver's housing actions. This is explained by the nature of housing as a consumption item, as well as by the need to account for human elements in state actions. The fact that the local state is necessary for democratic legitimation and that housing can be made important to critical production issues presents opportunities at the local government level for housing reforms. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

In 1919, the federal government initiated a housing scheme to finance and construct war veterans' and low-cost homes during a period of severe housing shortages and economic recession immediately following the First World War. The Province of British Columbia participated extensively in the program under the auspices of the Better Housing Scheme Act. In Vancouver, the majority of the one hundred and fifty-three houses built under this initiative were modestly priced examples of the Craftsman bungalow. Although the federal housing guidelines defined the scheme's objectives as providing housing to those in greatest need, the choice of the Craftsman bungalow typology for the Vancouver model suggests otherwise. The Craftsman bungalow was appropriated for the Vancouver Better Housing Scheme for economic and ideological purposes, wedding economy and aesthetics with the government's desire to bring morality and family values to all classes through domestic architecture. The Scheme solicited the Arts and Crafts bungalow as its primary model in part because of its adaptability of materials: the Craftsman aesthetic emphasizing natural wood fit well into British Columbia's thriving lumber economy. Moreover, the modest, detached home set on a single lot interspersed in one of Vancouver's existing neighbourhoods bolstered the sagging real estate market, which had stagnated during the First World War, and ensured economic renewal. The Arts and Crafts inspired bungalow addressed notions of the traditional nuclear family with the husband and father as sole wage earner and the wife and mother as housekeeper. Through its plan and design and through its comprehensive marketing strategy, the bungalow reaffirmed the accepted roles of family members during the post-war period of economic recession, instability, and uncertainty with the past and the future. Through the Vancouver Better Housing Scheme, its proponents attempted to establish the detached, single family home as a national goal for everyone which would promote long term social stability and economic growth and recovery from the post-war depression.

In 1919, the federal government initiated a housing scheme to finance and construct war veterans' and low-cost homes during a period of severe housing shortages and economic recession immediately following the First World War. The Province of British Columbia participated extensively in the program under the auspices of the Better Housing Scheme Act. In Vancouver, the majority of the one hundred and fifty-three houses built under this initiative were modestly priced examples of the Craftsman bungalow. Although the federal housing guidelines defined the scheme's objectives as providing housing to those in greatest need, the choice of the Craftsman bungalow typology for the Vancouver model suggests otherwise. The Craftsman bungalow was appropriated for the Vancouver Better Housing Scheme for economic and ideological purposes, wedding economy and aesthetics with the government's desire to bring morality and family values to all classes through domestic architecture. The Scheme solicited the Arts and Crafts bungalow as its primary model in part because of its adaptability of materials: the Craftsman aesthetic emphasizing natural wood fit well into British Columbia's thriving lumber economy. Moreover, the modest, detached home set on a single lot interspersed in one of Vancouver's existing neighbourhoods bolstered the sagging real estate market, which had stagnated during the First World War, and ensured economic renewal. The Arts and Crafts inspired bungalow addressed notions of the traditional nuclear family with the husband and father as sole wage earner and the wife and mother as housekeeper. Through its plan and design and through its comprehensive marketing strategy, the bungalow reaffirmed the accepted roles of family members during the post-war period of economic recession, instability, and uncertainty with the past and the future. Through the Vancouver Better Housing Scheme, its proponents attempted to establish the detached, single family home as a national goal for everyone which would promote long term social stability and economic growth and recovery from the post-war depression. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Architecture and Landscape Architecture (SALA), School of / Graduate

This thesis explores why the commonly used broad definition of homelessness endorsed by many analysts and academics in the contemporary literature is not useful in devising effective housing policy to alleviate the most urgent needs of those who are without safe, healthy, permanent and affordable shelter. The broad definition views homelessness as the absence of permanent home over which inhabitants have personal control and which provides shelter, privacy, security at an affordable cost together with ready access to social, economic and cultural public services. It is often contrasted with a narrow definition of homelessness. While the narrow definition only focus on the needs of the absolute homeless (i.e., people without a roof over their head), the broad definition employs a comprehensive perspective to take into consideration the needs of the at risk homeless (i.e., people who are at the risk of losing their home) as well. Housing analysts who endorse the broad definition of homelessness believe that by framing the issue in its wider context they may be able to induce public policy change to tackle homelessness broadly in the public agenda. However, contrary to this well-intended motive, this study finds that the broad definition may actually hinder policy decision making to respond effectively and efficiently to those who are most in need. It does so for five reasons: 1) its broadness is inconsistent with the ideological and political realities in a homeownership dominant housing system; 2) it contains an inadequately formulated category of "at risk homeless" which ignores or dismisses the housing difficulties (e.g., affordability, suitability and adequacy) of the at risk homeowners; 3) it fails to establish precise boundaries of the broadly defined homeless population mainly due to technical and political ramifications; 4) it is weak in coalescing inter-agency, community and individual support and advocacy; and 5) the broader the definition the bigger the social problem and the more the public resources required to address the issue broadly which in turn undermines the concept's utility in generating welfare consensus to mobilize resources in assisting the weakest members in the community. In order to redirect housing policy decision making to be responsive to the neediest, this thesis proposes that: 1) the potential utility of Housing Dimension of Homelessness must be distinguished from the "general" broad conception of homelessness so that policy specific focus can be given to each individual dimension of homelessness to facilitate immediate actions and solutions to aid each target group (e.g., housing dimension of homelessness focuses mainly on housing aspect of homelessness therefore the concept has the highest utility for investigating housing problems and formulating housing solutions for people with severe basic shelter need. The general broad view of homelessness focuses on all contributing factors of homelessness equally therefore the concept has the highest utility in investigating broader social issues such as social inequality); 2) homeless should be recategorized into five subgroups: at risk renters, at risk homeowners, street homeless, shelter homeless and by-choice homeless in order to increase the concepts' utility for prioritizing needs and allocating public resources to aid the neediest; and 3) policies and programs for the homeless must be targeted at "shelter homeless" and "street homeless" instead of "homeless" as a general broad category to ascertain that the most vulnerable members in the community will receive the highest priority assistance in Canada's housing system. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The delivery of social housing is consistently plagued with problems ranging from reduced budget allocation, scarcity of adequately zoned lands and neighborhood opposition. Though limited, provincial funding is still available in BC. However, land acquisition remains a problem. Municipal governments are recognized to have the influence to increase the amount of land for affordable housing projects through the use of zoning by-laws. This thesis argues that the exclusionary character of the municipal zoning by-law does not encourage the creation of affordable housing units. Amendments to the Municipal Act under Bill 57 which allow BC municipalities to negotiate with developers to set aside some units as affordable through density bonusing and inclusionary zoning do not also guarantee that units can be created. Both strategies are dependent on the performance of the market place. This thesis explores an alternative form of affirmative zoning as a possible municipal initiative that can facilitate the creation of affordable housing units by reviewing governments' activities in affordable housing provision and by looking at Surrey as an illustrative case. The alternative form calls for the amendment of the zoning by-law to include a specific zone for affordable housing and pre-zoning of vacant municipal-owned lands for affordable housing. By adopting this strategy, a municipal government departs from its traditional reactor role. Surrey has demonstrated that in order to adopt affirmative zoning, a municipality has to be governed by a socially-committed council who should bring affordable housing provision as a visible component in the municipal agenda. The case also shows that the process has inherent constraints. The provincial government may prohibit councils from identifying affordable housing as a distinct zone while neighbourhoods can still mount strong opposition against the process. Senior governments may start to "dump" social housing projects in municipalities that have adopted this mechanism. With this mechanism in place, a municipal government may expect to accommodate additional population and consequently, an additional demand on municipal resources and services. However, the adoption of the strategy can provide municipal governments with an alternative option, enhance the planning process, foster public acceptance of affordable housing projects, and shorten the approval process. Two lessons are drawn from this thesis: • municipal resources can be re-directed to facilitate the process of creating affordable housing units and • planners and decision-makers should assume a progressive philosophy, leadership and social commitment to ensure that the strategy works.

The delivery of social housing is consistently plagued with problems ranging from reduced budget allocation, scarcity of adequately zoned lands and neighborhood opposition. Though limited, provincial funding is still available in BC. However, land acquisition remains a problem. Municipal governments are recognized to have the influence to increase the amount of land for affordable housing projects through the use of zoning by-laws. This thesis argues that the exclusionary character of the municipal zoning by-law does not encourage the creation of affordable housing units. Amendments to the Municipal Act under Bill 57 which allow BC municipalities to negotiate with developers to set aside some units as affordable through density bonusing and inclusionary zoning do not also guarantee that units can be created. Both strategies are dependent on the performance of the market place. This thesis explores an alternative form of affirmative zoning as a possible municipal initiative that can facilitate the creation of affordable housing units by reviewing governments' activities in affordable housing provision and by looking at Surrey as an illustrative case. The alternative form calls for the amendment of the zoning by-law to include a specific zone for affordable housing and pre-zoning of vacant municipal-owned lands for affordable housing. By adopting this strategy, a municipal government departs from its traditional reactor role. Surrey has demonstrated that in order to adopt affirmative zoning, a municipality has to be governed by a socially-committed council who should bring affordable housing provision as a visible component in the municipal agenda. The case also shows that the process has inherent constraints. The provincial government may prohibit councils from identifying affordable housing as a distinct zone while neighbourhoods can still mount strong opposition against the process. Senior governments may start to "dump" social housing projects in municipalities that have adopted this mechanism. With this mechanism in place, a municipal government may expect to accommodate additional population and consequently, an additional demand on municipal resources and services. However, the adoption of the strategy can provide municipal governments with an alternative option, enhance the planning process, foster public acceptance of affordable housing projects, and shorten the approval process. Two lessons are drawn from this thesis: • municipal resources can be re-directed to facilitate the process of creating affordable housing units and • planners and decision-makers should assume a progressive philosophy, leadership and social commitment to ensure that the strategy works. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate