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No description available.

The humpback whale was almost driven to extinction by commercial whaling in the Southern Ocean. Little is known about the degree of interchange among the remaining Southern Hemisphere populations. This thesis aimed to assess the connectivity among breeding grounds, feeding areas and migratory corridors of humpback whales using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers. The population structure of humpback whale populations in breeding grounds across the South Pacific and eastern Indian oceans was investigated, with an interest in the origins of whales in eastern Polynesia, using an extensive collection of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences (n = 1,112; 470 base pairs in length). Samples were obtained from living whales at six breeding grounds: New Caledonia, Tonga, Cook Islands, French Polynesia (Society Islands), Colombia and western Australia. We found significant differentiation, at both the haplotype and nucleotide level, among the six breeding grounds (FST = 0.033; ΦST = 0.022) and for most pair-wise comparisons. The differentiation of the eastern Polynesia humpback whales is consistent with the hypothesis of a relic subpopulation, rather than vagrancy or colonization from known neighbouring breeding grounds. Regardless of their origin, it seems probable that islands of eastern Polynesia are now the primary breeding grounds for humpback whales feeding in the management Area VI (170°W – 120°W) of the Antarctic, as defined by the International Whaling Commission. A population of humpback whales migrates along the western South American coast, with breeding grounds mainly off Colombia and Ecuador and feeding areas off the western coast of the Antarctic Peninsula and in the channels and fjords ofsouthern Chile. We analysed the genetic relationship between humpback whales from these two summer feeding areas of the eastern South Pacific population to assess the potential heterogeneity in the migratory pattern of the population. We compared mitochondrial DNA control region sequences from 132 whales from the Antarctic Peninsula and 52 whales from the Magellan Strait areas. An AMOVA showed significant differences between the two feeding areas (FST = 0.180; ΦST = 0.169). A phylogenetic analysis showed both areas are represented in the AE clade that is only found in the Southern Hemisphere in the Colombian breeding ground. Genetic and previous demographic data (based on photo-identification) strongly suggest that both feeding areas are related to the same breeding ground but that heterogeneity exists among the feeding areas of this population, similar to that observed in the North Pacific and North Atlantic populations of humpback whales.Humpback whales migrating through eastern Australia and New Zealand have been linked with those breeding off northeastern Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji and Tonga, forming a single stock (Breeding Stock E). We investigated the relationship between the New Caledonian and Tongan breeding grounds, based on interchange of individual whales (genetically identified) and population genetic differentiation (mitochondrial DNA control region sequences and nuclear DNA microsatellites). We found significantly higher recapture probabilities within each breeding ground compared to the recapture probability between them using genetic identification, and significant differences at the population level in the FST and ΦST for mitochondrial and nuclear markers. These analyses suggest differentiation among the Breeding Stock E, supporting a proposed sub-stock division for New Caledonia (E2) and Tonga (E3). Historically, humpback whales off New Zealand coasts were caught during their migratory journeys between Antarctic feeding areas and tropical breeding grounds in the South Pacific. Here we investigated the genetic diversity of New Zealand humpback whales, comparing mitochondrial DNA control region sequence data with that from breeding grounds across the South Pacific (New Caledonia, Tonga, Cook Islands, French Polynesia and Colombia) and eastern Indian (western Australia) Oceans. We analyzed 30 samples collected around New Zealand, revealing 20 haplotypes. All haplotypes were found in New Caledonia and some were also found in other breeding grounds. New Zealand humpback whale haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity were similar to those from the compared breeding grounds, but were significantly different at haplotype level from the Cook Islands, French Polynesia and Colombia breeding grounds. We found significant differences at haplotype level with the same three locations when a pair-wise AMOVA was performed. Three breeding grounds (western Australia, New Caledonia and Tonga) did not show significant differences at either nucleotide or haplotype levels. This genetic evidence and the available demographic data suggest a closer relationship of the New Zealand stock with New Caledonia and to a lesser extent with Tongan whales, supporting New Zealand as a primary migratory corridor for the humpback whales breeding in these western Pacific Islands.

This thesis examined the relative importance of natural and human influences to the population and assemblage dynamics of reef fishes in northeastern New Zealand. In particular, how different reef fishes responded to the implementation of no-take and partial marine reserve protection, and physical factors responsible for spatial differences in fish abundance. Included were data from prior to the establishment of a no-take marine reserve, multiple fished reference locations, biannual sampling and the use of two independent methods to provide quantitative estimates of fish abundance and size. This combination of factors is rare in studies of marine reserves was an important strategy leading to an improved understanding of the mechanisms structuring fish communities. Responses of the reef fish assemblage to changes in fishing mortality were examined at the Poor Knights Islands Marine Reserve. Full no-take marine reserve protection was implemented on the 1st Oct 1998 but for the prior 17 years, the Poor Knights Reserve comprised only two small no-take zones and allowed recreational fishing in the rest of the reserve. Following implementation of no-take marine reserve status the reef fish community changed rapidly; there were no obvious changes at either reference location. Species targeted by fishers, such as Pagrus auratus (snapper) and Caprodon longimanus (pink maomao), responded most strongly to protection. An increase in the density of some non-targeted species can probably be attributed to climatic effects, rather than a reduction in fishing pressure. A decline in the abundance of several species at the Poor Knights may have been a result of natural mortality, or competitive or predatory interactions with snapper. Along with human influences (fishing), physical variables are important in determining the distribution and abundance of reef fish. Four locations (two mainland and two island) were surveyed in northeastern New Zealand to determine spatial patterns for seven labrid species, one of the most abundant and widespread taxa of reef fish in New Zealand. The underlying mechanisms were then explored through an examination of the relationship between swimming ability (as examined through pectoral fin morphology), exposure and depth. Each of the four locations consistently displayed distinct labrid assemblages, likely due to the influence of the East Auckland Current. Regardless of location, there was a consistent depthrelated trend for most labrids and a trend for some species to be associated with certain levels of wave exposure. By analogy with tropical labrid assemblages, it was expected that there would be a clear relationship between pectoral fin aspect ratio and depth and/or exposure. However, this relationship was not strongly evident suggesting that wave exposure may not be as important for labrids on northeastern New Zealand reefs as hypothesised for tropical coral reef systems. The response of snapper, an important recreational and commercial finfish, was investigated following the cessation of all fishing at the Poor Knights. The rate of response of snapper to protection was rapid, in areas that had previously been partially protected as well as in those that had been fully protected from fishing, with the overall density of legal sized fish increasing by 7.4 times over 4 years, likely a result of recolonisation rather than recruitment. The 818% increase in snapper biomass has the potential to enhance areas outside or within the reserve through the export of biomass (eggs and/or larvae and adults) - the daily batch fecundity was 11 to 18 times higher at the Poor Knights compared to the reference locations. The effects of partial protection on reef fish were further examined at the Mimiwhangata Marine Park, an area where recreational fishing is permitted but all commercial fishing has been prohibited for 18 years. Snapper showed no difference in abundance or size between the Mimiwhangata Marine Park and adjacent control areas, with the density of snapper most similar to fished reference locations. The lack of any recovery by snapper within the Marine Park, despite the exclusion of commercial fishers and restrictions on recreational fishing, and results from the Poor Knights, indicates that partial fishing regulations are ineffective as conservation tools for protecting targeted species or for fish communities in general (i.e. through reduction in by-catch). Results from this study provide evidence that recreational fishing has significant impacts on reef fishes.

Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are frequently brought into contact with humans, due to their coastal habitat use. Over the last decade there has been considerable growth in the commercial dolphin-based tourism industry. This growth exposes coastal populations to boats and swimmers. New Zealand has allowed commercial operations offering swimming with wild dolphins since 1989. Little is known about the effects of boats and swimmers on dolphin behaviour. The present study examines a population of bottlenose dolphins that utilise the Bay of Islands as part of their range along the northeastern coast of New Zealand, and their behavioural response to commercial swim-with-dolphin operations. Data were collected from an independent research boat and the commercial dolphinwatching boats from December 1996 to February 2000. Photo-identification showed a closed population of 446 (95% C.I. 418-487) dolphins, with an 81% resight rate of the 378 catalogued individuals. Group size ranged from 2 – 50 dolphins, with 80% of groups (n = 160) containing 2 - 20 dolphins. The number of groups with calves present increased from 32% (n = 17) in 1997, to 63% (n = 47) in 1999. This could be explained by the increased number of neonates born; from four in 1997, to nine in 1999. Photo-identification in areas outside the Bay of Islands showed that individuals ranged minimum distances of 82 km north, and 388 km south of the Bay of Islands. All photographs taken outside the Bay of Islands were matched to known animals, suggesting that the majority of the northeastern coastal population is seen in the Bay. With the next nearest population of bottlenose dolphins approximately 1,000 km south, these dolphins probably form an isolated population ranging along the east coast of the northeastern North Island. Habitat use by the dolphins was examined using Geographic Positioning System (GPS) points simultaneously linked to behavioural states. In total, 31 groups were followed, and 847 GPS points were recorded. Position of initial encounter was recorded for 138 groups of dolphins. There was a significant correlation between water depth and sea-surface temperature, with dolphins found in deeper waters in summer when water temperature was highest, and in shallow waters in winter when the water temperature was lowest. Only one behavioural state, slow travel, was significantly different by season. Although all behaviours were observed in all zones, dolphins had preferential habitat use throughout the four zones within the Bay. To determine the level of impact on dolphin behaviour due to boat traffic, focal-group follows using a scan sample methodology were conducted from an independent research boat. A CATMOD analysis was used to determine dolphin behaviour by season, number of boats, and group size. Dolphin behaviour differed by boat number; in particular, resting behaviour decreased as boat number increased and milling behaviour increased as boat number increased. Behaviour differed when the research boat was the only boat present. Closer examination of boat type, i.e., permitted dolphin watching boats, non-permitted tour boats, and recreational boats, found a difference in dolphin behaviour in the presence of the permitted boats when compared to the other types. Dolphins rested less and engaged in more milling behaviour when the permitted boats were present. Responses to swim attempts from the commercial boats were compared from 1994 - 1995 to 1997 - 1998. In total, 255 groups were encountered of which 36% (n = 93) were exposed to at least one swim attempt. Successful swims (i.e., where at least one dolphin remained within 5 m of at least one swimmer) decreased from 48% in 1994 - 1995 to 34% in 1997 - 1998 and avoidance responses increased from 22% to 31%. Dolphin response varied according to swimmer placement from the boats. The ‘in path’ placement had the highest level of avoidance. Only ‘line abreast’ placement resulted in a decrease in avoidance. Based on the photo-identification sighting records, it was estimated that an average dolphin was exposed to 31 swim attempts per year. This suggests that individual dolphins have, with cumulative experience, become sensitised to swim attempts. If a swim attempt was successful, on average, it involved 19% of the group. Juveniles were more likely to interact with swimmers than adults. The present study suggests that the wide-ranging population of bottlenose dolphins that frequents the Bay of Islands is exposed to levels of tourism which can affect the dolphins behaviour. In particular, the permitted boats’ presence results in decreased resting behaviour by the dolphins. The apparent sensitisation of this population to swim attempts, and the relatively small number of individual dolphins that interact with swimmers, are grounds for concern about the long-term impact of interactions. Ongoing monitoring of this populations’ response to swimmers and boats, combined with a precautionary approach to management of boats and swimmers, are recommended.

Broadcast spawning marine invertebrates have been widely used as model organisms to study processes of evolution. One of these is the study of various life history stages associated with reproduction. Fertilization ecology in broadcast spawning marine organisms, i.e. the process by which sperm and egg fusion occurs once released into the ocean, has been the subject of intensive study for roughly the last 20 years, and represents thus a recent field in ecological sciences. This growth in interest was sparked by studies that showed spawning events may take place predominantly under sperm limiting conditions. More recent findings however, suggest that the occurrence of sperm competition, and the risk of polyspermy (multiple sperm entry in to the egg, which is lethal in echinoderms) can also occur during reproductive events in marine invertebrates. This has also been predicted on theoretical grounds. Even though polyspermy has been observed previously, particularly during aquaculture studies, evidence to assess the occurrence of polyspermy in situ, and the conditions under which it occurs is lacking. Simulated field studies in Evechinus chloroticus as well as laboratory studies in E. chloroticus and Coscinasterias muricata found high levels of polyspermy, even under the sperm limiting conditions that are naturally found in the field in other marine broadcast spawners. Furthermore, laboratory results in both Evechinus and Coscinasterias showed that polyspermy is most likely to increase when sperm concentrations are increased. In addition, even though increasing sperm concentrations increases monospermy to a certain extent, an increase in gamete contact times generates similar levels of monospermy. Results from these studies confirmed the mathematical model predicting some of these events. The timing of gamete release to achieve maximum fertilization success (monospermy) in a broadcast spawner is thought to be under strong selective pressures, because reproductive success is directly related to fitness. The spawning patterns in the sea urchin E. chloroticus observed in this study demonstrated that E. chloroticus spawns under varying environmental and ecological conditions. Interestingly, it appeared that highly synchronous and widespread spawning was found to occur when highly turbulent conditions existed. This may reduce the potential for polyspermy that may exist during mass spawnings under shallow and calm conditions. The demonstration of polyspermy and the confirmation of the mathematical model, suggest that polyspermy is a common and frequent occurrence during broadcast spawning events. Thus polyspermy represents an evolutionary force that may shape the evolution of reproductive phenomena at levels ranging from the gamete to the population.

Previous studies indicated the marine pyridoacridone alkaloid ascididemin possessed a unique biological profile. Investigation of synthetic routes to ascididemin led to the discovery that ascididemin precursors possessed a wide range of biological activities. One precursor possessed hollow fiber in vivo antitumoral activity and continuing in vivo studies at the NCI, using subcutaneous xenograft assays, are in progress. A crystal structure of a precursor indicates that these tetracyclic heterocycles are planar, suggesting intercalation as a mechanism of antitumoral action. Ascididemin was synthesized by two novel ring E forming reactions. The superior methodology was also useful in the preparation of analogues, such as kuanoniamine A. Ascididemin possessed promising hollow fiber in vivo antitumoral activity but was poorly active in a subcutaneous xenograft study. Ascididemin was incapable of exerting antitumoral activity at a distance and further analogues were prepared to address this problem. Ten analogues were prepared, with all the non-bromine containing analogues selected for in vivo evaluation at the NCI. Two ring A analogues were prepared by a thennew synthetic route, including the antiviral natural product 11-hydroxyascididemin. 11-Methoxyascididemin was selected for hollow fiber evaluation. Two bromine containing ring D analogues were prepared, including the antifungal natural product 2-bromoleptoclinidinone. A crystal structure on 2-bromoleptoclinidinone was the first determined on a pyridoacridone alkaloid and the molecule was planar, further supporting an intercalative mechanism of action. Due to non-selective antitumoral cytotoxicity, ring D analogues are not useful antitumoral agents. Six carbon-based ring E analogues were prepared by novel methodology. All 6-substituted analogues assessed were selected for in vivo antitumoral evaluation. Hollow fiber antitumoral activity decreased with bulk of the substituent. 6-Methylascididemin has been selected for subcutaneous xenograft studies. The 5-substituted analogue prepared gave the best in vitro antitumoral profile of all alkaloids in this study and has been selected for in vivo evaluation. Ring E substituted N-8-deaza-ascididemin analogues possessed no antitumoral activity, highlighting the importance of the 1,10-phenanthroline-like bay region of ascididemin in antitumoral activity. Another four structurally novel, quinoid containing alkaloids have been selected tor in vivo evaluation. While ascididemin was the only compound capable of topoisomerase IIα cleavable complex stabilization, related alkaloids possessed a similar level of inhibitory action against this enzyme. This further supports intercalation as the dominant mechanism of action for pyridoacridone alkaloids. Ecological roles of four natural pyridoacridone alkaloids were assessed. Alkaloids were species specific antifeedant agents against important consumers. These alkaloids may have a long term detrimental effect on predator physiology, due to the well established ability of these alkaloids to interfere with cell proliferation. Ascididemin elicited avoidance responses in numerous marine species. Ascididemin has no antifouling activity against macrofoulers. Microbiological assessment of ascididemin, 11-hydroxyascididemin and 2-bromoleptoclinidinone indicated that modification of the ascididemin chromophore leads to the directing of antimicrobial activity towards a different phyla of parasites. Pyridoacridone alkaloids may be part of a non-antibody based immune system. All studies point to pyridoacridone alkaloids enhancing the eventual reproductive success of the organism. Biological and chemical evaluation of 29 New Zealand ascidians has been performed. Significant biological activity was detected in ten ascidians. Novel metabolites isolated were 2-(3'-bromo-4'-hydroxyphenol)ethanamine (Cnemidocarpa bicomuta) and 1,3-dimethylguanine (unidentified ascidian). Known metabolites isolated were 1,3-dimethylisoguanine (Cnemidocarpa bicomuta) and rubrolides A, B and C (unidentified ascidian). The survey highlighted the importance of overexpressed purine bases in ascidian metabolism. No physiological roles for these overexpressed purines are as yet apparent. Our study of NZ ascidians has led to the isolation of many compounds previously isolated from sponges. The widespread distribution of such metabolites gives credence to the theory that common metabolite-generating genes are present in both phyla, due to the evolutionary success of these genes. Two optically active 9-(5-S-methyl-5-sulfinyl-lyxofuranosyl)-9H-purin-6-amine (lyxosyl-MTAS) nucleosides were isolated from the nudibranch Doriopsis flabellifera. This is the first report of any lyxosyl-MTAS nucleoside as either a natural or synthetic product.

Confronting Barriers to Ecological Information Transfer in New Zealand's Fisheries Management system: Towards Developing a Trajectory for Trans-disciplinary Inquiry This thesis confronts barriers to ecological information transfer in New Zealand's fisheries management system. The investigation reveals a wider problematic within the governmental institutions of the fisheries milieu. The thesis deploys Callon's (1991) concept of translation to ask new questions regarding the conduct of fisheries science and management, which since the introduction of the Quota Management System in 1986, has been defined through the practices of commercial stakeholder groups. These stakeholders enrol ecological information through a narrowly defined and non-reflexive discourse of sustainable utilisation to serve specific purposes that suit their own needs. The thesis uses imaginaries to illustrate how sustainable utilisation has marginalised those stakeholders with different views on how ecological information could be used in fisheries management decision making. Moreover, the thesis contends that the milieu's hegemonic ontological environment prevents translation by mitigating the potential for dialogue between stakeholder groups. The thesis engages with a wide range of literature and cuts through established modes of thinking, developing a trans-disciplinary discourse that re-conceptualises the fisheries management problematic in process terms. The thesis demonstrates how trans-disciplinary dialogue that might transcend the current impasses in the New Zealand fisheries milieu will only develop through a network of previously unconnected groups. The thesis proposes a series of policy and behavioural interventions aimed at shifting the existing hierarchies of power and realigning established networks to ensure such dialogue is possible. Keywords: trans-disciplinary research, translation, network alignment, New Zealand, ecological information transfer, fisheries management.

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / In 1986 the New Zealand system of fisheries management was reformed. The Quota Management System (QMS) augmented the existing input control regulatory instruments with a system of output controls: individual transferable quota (ITQ). This thesis examines a number of aspects of the QMS in the context of a case study of the SNA1 snapper fishery. The QMS model is contrasted with a dynamic optimization model of rights based fishing which shows the effectiveness of ITQ systems in resolving the open access problem and that proportional share ITQ prices potentially contain information about the biological and economic state of a fishery. Departures of the QMS from the theoretical model are noted, particularly the allocation mechanism, the continued application of open access input control apparatus, and the basis of total allowable catch definition. Input control is considered in a bioeconomic model of the Hauraki Gulf sub-stock of the SNA1 fishery that features a sea surface temperature recruitment sub-model. Changes to the minimum legal size regulation (MLS) and the effect of differing inter-temporal recruitment structures on rent generation are evaluated. The biological and economic inefficiency of size regulation and the unequal distribution of risk between sectors in this fishery under the current management regime are demonstrated. The potential role for discount rates as performance indicators is shown. An intra-cohort stock externality due to growth overfishing is evident. The productive capacity of the SNA1 fishery system is presently not fully utilized. Output control is examined through time series analyses of prices in SNA1 ITQ markets. To date government has relied on the results of stock assessment research when setting the allowable harvest and monitoring the performance of fisheries policy. Excessive reliance on biological data, in particular modelling outputs, has attracted criticism. An alternative, a minimum information system uses information contained in quota prices as indicators of the biological and economic health of a fishery. SNA1 quota ownership and lease markets are found to exhibit the characteristics of weak form efficiency. Prices reflect expected rents in the fishery. However, at this stage of their development prices also reflect firms' uncertainty over expectations of fishery management agency behavior. Concern has been expressed that ITQ systems may be compromised by market failure through the exercise of market power. Evidence of market power is found in the SNA1 market for ITQ lease title. Explicit non-commercial quota, a review of the effectiveness of remnant pre-QMS regulatory instruments, and a substantial role for economic information in the total allowable catch setting process and as performance indicators form the basis of recommendations for policy.