No description available.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the leading cause of death from an infectious disease. The success of the pathogen lies in its ability to subvert hostile intracellular macrophage environment. We performed genome-wide transcriptional deep sequencing on total RNA in murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) infected with hypervirulent Beijing strain (HN878) in an extensive time kinetic manner using single molecule sequencer and cap analysis gene expression (CAGE) technique. CAGE analysis revealed nearly 36000 unique RNA transcripts with approximately 16000 are not unannotated to a specific gene. This thesis addressed global changes in RNA expression levels in macrophages infected with Mtb in a time kinetic manner to pinpoint novel host protection and immune evasion genes and elucidate the role of these genes in vitro macrophage assays and in vivo knockout mouse studies. The data in this thesis showed that basic leucine zipper transcription factor 2 (Batf2) was an important factor that regulates inflammatory responses in Mtb infection. Deletion of Batf2 led to the survival of mice with reduced lung inflammation and histopathology due to reduced recruitment of inflammatory macrophages. We also showed that Batf2 was highly expressed in peripheral blood from adolescents who progressed from infection to tuberculosis disease and a predictive human biomarker for tuberculosis disease. In contrast to Batf2, we showed that Protein Kinase C-delta (PKC-δ) deficient mice are highly susceptible to tuberculosis and human lung proteomics dataset revealed that PKC-δ was highly upregulated in the necrotic and cavitory regions of human granulomas in multi-drug resistant subjects. PKC-δ deficient mice had a significant reduction in alveolar macrophages and dendritic cells, reduced accumulation of lipid bodies and serum fatty acids. In vitro experiments showed that PKCδ was required for optimal killing effector functions which were independent of phagosome maturation and autophagy in primary murine macrophages. Our studies suggested that these novel genes play a role in the immune response to Mtb and should be studied more thoroughly to evaluate their potential in possible TB interventions.

Evasion of an immune response mounted by a host is fundamental to the survival of a parasite. Immune evasion can be mediated in many ways from the production of molecules by the parasite which mimic cytokines produced by the human immune system to hiding from the immune system by locating within host cells. The production of immune cell mediating molecules in excretory secretory products is another means by which the parasite can tailor its surroundings to facilitate prolonged survival. The hypothesis of immunosuppression by parasite products, in particular members of the Venom Allergen Like (VAL) family, is key to this thesis. VAL proteins are members of the much larger SCP/TAPS family, which covers proteins from parasitic helminths such as Heligmosomoides polygyrus (H.polygyrus)to the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. These nematodes may have one or more genes encoding proteins that contain the SCP/TAPS domains often choosing to express these proteins at critical points within the helminths lifecycle. Phylogenetic analysis of a selection of these proteins revealed that their classification could be determined based upon the number of SCP/TAPS domains. Alternatively the presence or absence of the signal sequence combined with conserved cysteine residue data could be used. Further investigations into possible functions of the VAL proteins from H.polygyrus were carried out using recombinant protein produced in an insect cell expression system. To further examine the function of VAL genes a system that allows the heterologous expression of a gene in the well-documented Leishmania infection setting was employed. In vitro and in vivo studies were carried out which examined various infection parameters. Parasite infectivity in bone marrow derived macrophages in vitro along with cytokine production was observed. In vivo the development of lesions and subsequent parasite recovery from infected mice gave indications of changes in virulence that could be attributed to the presence and expression of the HpVAL genes. The ability of parasites to ameliorate symptoms of allergic and autoimmune diseases is now well documented with the most extreme use of this knowledge resulting in administration of an active parasitic infection as a treatment regime. We hope to identify individual molecules from a parasite that is known to reduce allergic symptoms in the allergic airway inflammation (AAI) model and produce these in a more structured and regulated fashion. It is plausible that VAL proteins from H.polygyrus may possess these regulatory properties, as has been shown for the excretory secretory products (HES) of the parasite; to that end HpVAL-1 and HpVAL-4 were tested in the allergic airway inflammation model and were shown to reduce both cell numbers in the bronchioalveolar lavage fluid and eosinophilia. Finally, the position of the parasite and products secreted by the parasite was examined. Directly labelled HES and recombinant VAL proteins were used to identify binding sites inside the parasite and within the parasites’ locality in the host i.e. the gut. Confocal microscopy revealed binding of HES to the parasites surface and internal structures and of both HES and HpVAL-4 to goblet cells and Paneth cells inside the gut. Paneth cells may affect parasite survival by influencing the gut microbiota and goblet cells have been shown to influence parasite persistence by production of mucus. Thus HES and more specifically HpVAL proteins may, through their interactions with these cells, interfere with mechanisms employed by the host to expel the parasite.

Staphylococcus aureus is the leading cause of nosocomial infections in the US and is becoming increasingly difficult to treat due to the limited antibiotics available. Capsular polysaccharides (CP), a virulence factor produced by the bacterium, allows S. aureus to evade the uptake and killing by host neutrophils. It has been shown previously that CP serotype 5 retains more cell-associated CP while type 8 tends to release more CP into the supernatant. This research focused on whether this phenomenon is dependent upon the serotype-specific capHIJK genes that vary between the two serotypes. 6850, a methicillin- sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) serotype 8 strain, is a well characterized clinical isolate that was used in this study. This strain was subjected to two allelic replacement steps: the first step to replace the cap8HIJK genes with an ermB cassette, creating mutant 6850 (CP-); the second step to replace the ermB cassette with the cap5HIJK genes, which resulted in the creation of mutant 6850 (CP5). All 3 strains were characterized genotypically by PCR and phenotypically for growth rate, metabolic profile, and CP production. ELISA inhibition studies revealed that serotype 5 and the serotype 8 variants of S. aureus 6850 produced similar levels of cell-associated CP. These results suggest that cell wall anchoring of S. aureus CP5 and CP8 is not serotype specific, but instead is dependent on the genetic background of the bacterial strain. A better understanding of the anchoring mechanism may allow for development of alternative immunotherapeutics for S. aureus.

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is an alpha herpes virus that causes primary infection with varicella (chicken pox), establishes latency in ganglia and may later reactivate as herpes zoster (shingles). Innate immune effectors are thought to control initial viral replication, but it is the adaptive immune system, involving T cells that mediates eventual control of viraemia and the associated clinical disease. Although both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells mediate viral clearance during acute illness, memory responses are dominated by CD4⁺ T cells. We tested the hypothesis that the paucity in memory CD8⁺ T cell effectors is partly attributed to immune evasion mechanisms that are mounted by VZV. We confirmed that VZV readily down regulates cell surface HLA-A and HLA-C but spares HLA-B onVZV infected keratinocytes and VZV infected Mewo cells. Analysis of intracellular HLA protein expression and gene transcription showed global down regulation of all HLA subtypes. Further analysis showed that VZV inhibits IFN-γ mediated up regulation of HLA expression and augments IFN-γ mediated up regulation of HLA-E and CD71 expression. Furthermore, we show that acute VZV infection lowers the frequency of circulating peripheral blood myeloid dendritic cells (mDC), reduces the expression of the DC activation marker HLA-DR and impairs inflammatory cytokine secretion in blood DC populations. Inhibition of DC cytokine secretion was found to be dependent on viral replication as irradiated virus resulted only in mild inhibition of IFN-α and TNF-α secretion. Lastly, we observed that VZV infection results in increased expression of host peptides, including MHC derived leader sequences that potentially bind to HLA-E. Cell surface HLA-E is known to be a ligand for the natural killer (NK) cell inhibitory receptor CD94/ NKG2A identifying a novel mechanism of viral immune escape from NK cell surveillance. In conclusion, our data reiterates the fact that VZV targets different aspects of antigen presentation to evade the immune system with implications for pathogenesis and approaches to improved vaccination and treatment.

In North America, Borrelia burgdorferi is the primary causative agent of Lymedisease which is a growing health concern. The ability of B. burgdorferi to maintain chronic infection indicates that they are capable of immune evasion. A distinguishing characteristic of B. burgdorferi is the large number of sequences encoding predicted or known lipoproteins, including outer surface protein F (OspF). This study analyzes the specificity of the humoral immune response to B. burgdorferi B3 IMI OspF proteins during murine and human infection. Immunoblot analyses revealed a temporal expression of OspF proteins during infection and mapped the immunodominant epitopes which lie within the variable domains. To determine if OspF-related proteins are produced by other isolates, immunoblot analyses were performed using sera collected from mice and humans infected with diverse B. burgdorferi strains. Differences in the immunoreactivity profile to OspF proteins were seen among the infection sera tested. To identify the molecular basis of these differences, the ospF gene was isolated from several strains, sequenced and evolutionary analyses were conducted. These analyses revealed that OspF proteins show little diversity despite the separate geographic locations from which isolates originated. The high degree of OspF protein conservation seen in isolates from two distinct regions emphasizes the potential for OpsF proteins as vaccinogens or in serodiagnostic assays. Altogether, this study demonstrates the potential contribution of OspF proteins to immune evasion through its temporal expression during infection which may play specific roles at different stages of infection. Studies are underway to determine if inactivation of ospF genes through allelic exchange mutagenesis impacts on the pathogenicity of the Lyme disease spirochetes.

A leptospirose é uma zoonose de distribuição mundial, com maior incidência nas regiões tropicais. As bactérias que causam a doença pertencem ao gênero Leptospira, família Leptospiracea e ordem Spirochaetales. A leptospirose é mantida na natureza pela colonização persistente dos túbulos renais proximais dos animais portadores. Uma estratégia adotada por estas espiroquetas para sobreviver à ação do sistema imune inato do hospedeiro é a capacidade que possuem de interagir com os reguladores do sistema complemento Fator H (FH) e proteína de ligação a C4b (C4BP). O sistema complemento é um componente vital da imunidade inata, uma vez que desempenha um papel crucial na defesa do hospedeiro, particularmente contra bactérias Gram-negativas. Dados recentes gerados por nosso grupo mostraram que C4BP interage com a proteína de superfície LcpA de Leptospira. Com cerca de 20 kDa, essa proteína é capaz de se ligar a C4BP purificado ou solúvel no soro de maneira dose-dependente. Uma vez ligado à proteína, C4BP permanece funcional agindo como cofator de Fator I na clivagem de C4b. O presente estudo teve como principal objetivo avaliar a interação da proteína LcpA com FH humano, principal regulador solúvel da via alternativa do sistema complemento. A proteína LcpA e suas porções N-Terminal, Intermediária e CTerminal recombinantes foram purificadas por cromatografia de afinidade a metal a partir da fração insolúvel. A interação dessas proteínas com FH foi avaliada por dois métodos distintos: ELISA e Western blot com overlay. Os resultados indicaram que a porção C-Terminal da proteína LcpA é responsável pela interação com FH. Curiosamente, C4BP também se liga a esse domínio da proteína. Uma vez que esses dois reguladores solúveis do sistema complemento interagem com o mesmo segmento da LcpA, realizaram-se, a seguir, ensaios de competição com o objetivo de avaliar se ambos compartilhariam os mesmos sítios de interação. Os dados mostraram que FH e C4BP devem se ligar a sequências distintas desta proteína. Com o objetivo de se avaliar a funcionalidade de FH ligado à LcpA, realizou-se um ensaio para investigar sua atividade de co-fator de Fator I na clivagem de C3b. Produtos de degradação de 46 kDa e 43 kDa da cadeia α' de C3b foram detectados, indicando que FH permanece funcional. Em se tratando de uma proteína com funções relacionadas ao processo de evasão ao sistema imune inato, decidiu-se realizar ensaios de desafio em modelo de hamster com a finalidade de se avaliar seu potencial imunoprotetor. Os três ensaios realizados indicaram que a proteína não é capaz de conferir proteção. Os ensaios de ELISA visando à avaliação dos títulos de anticorpos mostraram que LcpA não é imunogênica, fato que explica os resultados dos ensaios de desafio observados. Portanto, embora interaja com moléculas do hospedeiro e pareça contribuir para o processo de evasão ao sistema imune inato, essa proteína de membrana não se mostrou promissora como candidato vacinal contra leptospirose. / Leptospirosis is a zoonosis of global distribution, with higher incidence in tropical areas. The bacteria that cause the disease belong to the genus Leptospira, family Leptospiracea and order Spirochaetales. Leptospirosis is maintained in nature by persistent colonization of proximal renal tubules of carrier animals. One strategy adopted by these spirochetes to escape from host´s innate immune system is the ability to interact with the complement regulators Factor H (FH) and C4b Binding Protein (C4BP). The complement system is a vital component of the innate immune system, being crucial for host´s defense, particularly against Gram-negative bacteria. According to our recent published data, C4BP interacts with the leptospiral surface protein LcpA. This 20 kDa outer membrane protein binds both purified and serum C4BP in a dose-dependent manner. Once bound, C4BP remains functional acting as a cofactor for Factor I in the cleavage of C4b. In the present study we evaluated the interaction of LcpA with human FH, the main soluble regulator of the alternative pathway of complement. The intact protein as well as its N-terminal, intermediate and C-terminal portions were purified by metal-affinity chromatography from the insoluble pellet. The interaction of these proteins with FH was evaluated by two distinct methods: ELISA and Western blot overlay. Our results indicate that the C-terminal domain of LcpA mediates interaction with FH, and also with C4BP. Since both complement regulators interact with the same fragment of LcpA, we next performed competition assays to assess if they would share binding sites. According to our data, FH and C4BP have distinct binding sites on LcpA. Cofactor activity of FH bound to immobilized LcpA was confirmed by detecting the C3b α' chain cleavage fragments of 46 and 43 kDa upon incubation with Factor I, thus indicating that it remains functionally active. Given the LcpA´s role in host´s innate immune evasion, we also evaluated its vaccine potential in a hamster model. Data from three challenge assays indicated that the protein can not afford protection. Low ELISA antibody titers of hamsters immunized with LcpA were observed, which strongly suggests that this protein is not immunogenic. In conclusion, LcpA interacts with host´s molecules and seems to contribute to the bacterial immune evasion. Nevertheless, this outer membrane protein is not a promising vaccine candidate against leptospirosis.

The cancer antigen 125 (CA125) is a cell-surface mucin which is over-expressed by the majority of ovarian cancers. However, its biology and the role it plays in ovarian cancer is largely unknown, although other cell-surface mucins have been shown to play a role in apoptosis, cell growth and tumour immune evasion. To analyse the function of CA125 in ovarian cancer, we initially knocked down the expression of CA125 using RNA interference. Knocking down CA125 expression using in vitro transcribed short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) induced a potent cell death response, which has been well characterised in the literature as an induction of an interferon response and resulting in cell apoptosis. Subsequently, using the short hairpin RNA expression vector, pSUPER, which has been shown to knock down genes with high efficiency with reduced off-target affects, we generated stable sub-lines of the ovarian cancer cell line, OVCAR-3, which had been transfected with pSUPER constructs targeting CA125. Intriguingly, these sub-lines had a range of abnormal mitotic events and nuclear defects. However, there was no clear association with the level of CA125 knock down. This could be either due to clonal selection from the parent OVCAR-3 cell line or in addition to CA125 knock down, additional genetic changes are required to occur to favour a state of survival. Similar to the in vitro data, xenografts of the sub-clones into SCID mice generated inconclusive results as to whether CA125 knock down contributes to tumour growth, invasion and metastasis in vivo. More recently, we have been able to achieve high levels of short-term CA125 knock down using synthetic siRNAs designed to reduce off-target affects. These preliminary in vitro and in vivo experiments conducted with pSUPER sub-lines should be repeated using synthetic siRNAs to confirm the role of CA125 in this context. Given the role which the cytoplasmic tail of cell-surface mucins plays in its function, we generated a polyclonal antibody recognising the CA125 cytoplasmic tail, designated M16.1. Immunofluorescence imaging of CA125 in ovarian cancer cell lines, OVCAR-3 and PEO-1, using the OC125 extracellular domain antibody indicated cell-surface localisaton of CA125. However, in addition to the cell-surface localisation, the M16.1 antibody localised to the cell cytoplasm, indicating cleavage and release of the CA125 cytoplasmic tail into the cytosol. Additionally, M16.1 co-localised with α-tubulin at perinuclear sites and to areas resembling microtubule organising centres. However, M16.1 did not co-localise with γ-tubulin at the centrosome, indicating association with non-centrosomal microtubules. Furthermore, depolymerisation of microtubules on ice for 1 hour resulted in loss of diffuse cytoplasmic M16.1 staining but co-localisation between M16.1 and α-tubulin at non-centrosomal sites remained. Intriguingly, when microtubules were allowed to reform at 37oC in PEO-1 cells which had CA125 knocked down by synthetic siRNAs, the ability to reform radial asters was impaired, possibly indicating the CA125 cytoplasmic tail involvement in anchoring microtubules to non-centrosomal sites. Furthermore, we also cloned a portion of CA125 encompassing the cytoplasmic tail, transmembrane domain and 9 tandem repeats. When this construct was transfected into COS-1 cells, the CA125 cytoplasmic tail localised to microtubule bundles during metaphase. Mitotic involvement of the endogenous CA125 cytoplasmic tail was confrmed in OVCAR-3 and PEO-1 cells using M16.1. Given this association and also the results from the pSUPER sub-lines with CA125 knockdown, CA125 may be involved in controlling the fidelity of mitosis, which is grossly altered during tumourigenesis. More recently, it was identified that galectin-1 (Gal-1), an S-type lectin, is a ligand for CA125. Gal-1 is a potent inducer of T cell apoptosis and has been implicated as playing a major role in immune evasion for cancer cells. Consequently, we analysed the expression of CA125 and Gal-1 in ovarian cancer and confirmed the two molecules were expressed concurrently at the mRNA level by RT-PCR. Moreover, immunofluorescence studies also confirmed that CA125 and Gal-1 interacted with each other at the cell-surface of 27/87 cells, an ovarian cancer cell-line. Therefore, we hypothesised that CA125 presents Gal-1 to the immune system, which then induces T cell apoptosis and allows the tumour to escape the immune system. However, CA125 did not protect tumour cells from recognition or killing by T cells, which was shown by no differences in IFN-γ secretion or tumour lysis by cytotoxic T cells using influenza peptide pulsed pSUPER sub-lines with CA125 knockdown. The work described in this thesis suggests that CA125 plays a major role in the aetiology and progression of ovarian cancer through its actions on mitosis, microtubule organisation and immune evasion.

A leptospirose é uma zoonose de distribuição mundial, com maior incidência nas regiões tropicais. As bactérias que causam a doença pertencem ao gênero Leptospira, família Leptospiracea e ordem Spirochaetales. A leptospirose é mantida na natureza pela colonização persistente dos túbulos renais proximais dos animais portadores. Uma estratégia adotada por estas espiroquetas para sobreviver à ação do sistema imune inato do hospedeiro é a capacidade que possuem de interagir com os reguladores do sistema complemento Fator H (FH) e proteína de ligação a C4b (C4BP). O sistema complemento é um componente vital da imunidade inata, uma vez que desempenha um papel crucial na defesa do hospedeiro, particularmente contra bactérias Gram-negativas. Dados recentes gerados por nosso grupo mostraram que C4BP interage com a proteína de superfície LcpA de Leptospira. Com cerca de 20 kDa, essa proteína é capaz de se ligar a C4BP purificado ou solúvel no soro de maneira dose-dependente. Uma vez ligado à proteína, C4BP permanece funcional agindo como cofator de Fator I na clivagem de C4b. O presente estudo teve como principal objetivo avaliar a interação da proteína LcpA com FH humano, principal regulador solúvel da via alternativa do sistema complemento. A proteína LcpA e suas porções N-Terminal, Intermediária e CTerminal recombinantes foram purificadas por cromatografia de afinidade a metal a partir da fração insolúvel. A interação dessas proteínas com FH foi avaliada por dois métodos distintos: ELISA e Western blot com overlay. Os resultados indicaram que a porção C-Terminal da proteína LcpA é responsável pela interação com FH. Curiosamente, C4BP também se liga a esse domínio da proteína. Uma vez que esses dois reguladores solúveis do sistema complemento interagem com o mesmo segmento da LcpA, realizaram-se, a seguir, ensaios de competição com o objetivo de avaliar se ambos compartilhariam os mesmos sítios de interação. Os dados mostraram que FH e C4BP devem se ligar a sequências distintas desta proteína. Com o objetivo de se avaliar a funcionalidade de FH ligado à LcpA, realizou-se um ensaio para investigar sua atividade de co-fator de Fator I na clivagem de C3b. Produtos de degradação de 46 kDa e 43 kDa da cadeia α' de C3b foram detectados, indicando que FH permanece funcional. Em se tratando de uma proteína com funções relacionadas ao processo de evasão ao sistema imune inato, decidiu-se realizar ensaios de desafio em modelo de hamster com a finalidade de se avaliar seu potencial imunoprotetor. Os três ensaios realizados indicaram que a proteína não é capaz de conferir proteção. Os ensaios de ELISA visando à avaliação dos títulos de anticorpos mostraram que LcpA não é imunogênica, fato que explica os resultados dos ensaios de desafio observados. Portanto, embora interaja com moléculas do hospedeiro e pareça contribuir para o processo de evasão ao sistema imune inato, essa proteína de membrana não se mostrou promissora como candidato vacinal contra leptospirose. / Leptospirosis is a zoonosis of global distribution, with higher incidence in tropical areas. The bacteria that cause the disease belong to the genus Leptospira, family Leptospiracea and order Spirochaetales. Leptospirosis is maintained in nature by persistent colonization of proximal renal tubules of carrier animals. One strategy adopted by these spirochetes to escape from host´s innate immune system is the ability to interact with the complement regulators Factor H (FH) and C4b Binding Protein (C4BP). The complement system is a vital component of the innate immune system, being crucial for host´s defense, particularly against Gram-negative bacteria. According to our recent published data, C4BP interacts with the leptospiral surface protein LcpA. This 20 kDa outer membrane protein binds both purified and serum C4BP in a dose-dependent manner. Once bound, C4BP remains functional acting as a cofactor for Factor I in the cleavage of C4b. In the present study we evaluated the interaction of LcpA with human FH, the main soluble regulator of the alternative pathway of complement. The intact protein as well as its N-terminal, intermediate and C-terminal portions were purified by metal-affinity chromatography from the insoluble pellet. The interaction of these proteins with FH was evaluated by two distinct methods: ELISA and Western blot overlay. Our results indicate that the C-terminal domain of LcpA mediates interaction with FH, and also with C4BP. Since both complement regulators interact with the same fragment of LcpA, we next performed competition assays to assess if they would share binding sites. According to our data, FH and C4BP have distinct binding sites on LcpA. Cofactor activity of FH bound to immobilized LcpA was confirmed by detecting the C3b α' chain cleavage fragments of 46 and 43 kDa upon incubation with Factor I, thus indicating that it remains functionally active. Given the LcpA´s role in host´s innate immune evasion, we also evaluated its vaccine potential in a hamster model. Data from three challenge assays indicated that the protein can not afford protection. Low ELISA antibody titers of hamsters immunized with LcpA were observed, which strongly suggests that this protein is not immunogenic. In conclusion, LcpA interacts with host´s molecules and seems to contribute to the bacterial immune evasion. Nevertheless, this outer membrane protein is not a promising vaccine candidate against leptospirosis.

No description available.