Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Alberta, 2000. / Description based on print version record. "A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History, Department of History and Classics." Includes bibliographical references (leaves 342-374).

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2009. / Title from title screen (site viewed October 15, 2009). PDF text: viii, 145 p. : col. ill. ; 1 Mb. UMI publication number: AAT 3355634. Includes bibliographical references. Also available in microfilm and microfiche formats.

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This thesis provides a model for understanding how social classes arose in the Gulf of Georgia area. This model distinguishes how social status in rank and a class societies are manifested and maintained in non-state, kin-based societies, drawing mainly from ethnographic descriptions. The relationship between the living and the dead for making status claims in both rank and class societies makes the archaeological study of mortuary ritual important for investigating these relationships. I propose that burial mounds and cairns, which were prominent in the region from 1500 to 1000 years ago, reflect a time when status differentiation was defined mainly through social rank. Following this period, when all forms of below-ground burials cease and above-ground graves become the dominant form of mortuary practice, I propose that the historically recorded pattern of social class emerged. Archaeological investigations of the burial mounds and cairns at the Scowlitz site have provided the first fully reported instances of mound and cairn burials in this region. Using less well reported data from over 150 additional burial mounds and cairns reported from other sites in the region, evidence for the nature of status differentiation sought out. Patterns in the burial record are investigated through discussing variation within classes of burials, demography and deposition, spatial patterning, grave goods, and temporal variation. These patterns and changes are then discussed within the context of the larger culture history of the region, suggesting that the late Marpole or Garrison sub-phase may be defined as ending around 1000 BP with the cessation of below-ground burial practices. The general patterns observed in mound and cairn burials and the changes in mortuary ritual subsequent to their being built generally support the idea of a shift from a rank to a class society. The thesis provides a basis for further investigation of questions of social status and inequality in the Gulf of Georgia region. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

Most anthropologists agree today that the Indians of America came to this continent by way of the Bering Sea somewhere between fifteen and eight thousand years ago. During their years of occupancy of the northwest, they developed a culture adapted to its economy. They perfected neither writing nor formal education, but asserted their heraldry and transmitted their legends and traditions orally. Europeans, in search of a westward route to the orient, reached the American northwest late in the eighteenth century. They introduced into the native way of life a modicum of European artifacts, but also, particularly along the coast, began the destruction of the aboriginal culture through disease, liquor, and creation of unnatural villages about trading posts. Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries began to arrive toward the middle of the nineteenth century. They worked to counteract the influence of the fur-traders but, in their efforts at evangelism, helped to precipitate disintegration of the native way of life. Anglican, Methodist and Roman Catholic Churches gradually founded missions, and later schools, among Indian groups throughout the province. Sponsored entirely by Church funds and contributions from the Indians themselves at first, these schools began to receive Federal government grants as reserves became established following British Columbia's entry into Confederation in 1871. Each Church established a dual system of schooling, consisting of small day schools located on such reserves as it was practicable to place them, and larger residential schools, strategically located, at which orphans and children from outlying reserves could remain while receiving their education. Little direct government interest was shown in their education until after World War II, when census figures began to reveal the fact that the Indians were not a dying race. In 1948 a joint Parliamentary committee made recommendations which became embodied in the revised Indian Act of 1951, which has since received further revision. The Indian Affairs Branch of the Department of Citizenship and Immigration has assumed almost the entire costs of operating both day and residential schools, has erected day schools, and has appointed inspectors to supervise the system. Eighteen agency superintendents act as local school boards In B.C. Provision in the revised Indian Act for Federal-provincial cooperation has greatly increased the number of Indian students attending regular public schools. In 1958, out of a total of 8746 students at school, 6411 were enrolled in a system of 78 Indian schools, and the remaining 2335 were attending provincial and private schools. The standard of Indian education is rising but, in relation to that of the average non-Indian population element, the Indians' economic standards are declining. Integration of the Indian into the Canadian way of life; ethnically, culturally, or economically, is not taking place. Ethnic integration is not being really sought; cultural Integration is. It cannot proceed until some degree of economic parity has been achieved. Indians today cannot afford the impedimenta of White culture; to date the destination of the Indian, educated or not, is the reservation whence he came. In remote localities Indians should he trained for their way of life rather than ours, until civilization advances to meet them. Wherever possible, the adult Indian must be granted fair employment and a fair representation in a unified provincial educational system. Only then can his children become acculturated. / Education, Faculty of / Graduate

The problem around which this thesis is written concerns the relation of myth to social organization in a small society. The society chosen for intensive study is Cape Madge, British Columbia, a Kwakiutl village of the Southern Lekwiltok group on the Northwest coast of North America. That myth and social organization are bound in together in a total system of social relations has been demonstrated for primitive societies by such eminent anthropologists as Raymond Firth, Bronislaw Malinowski, and Sir Peter Buck for the Oceanic area. The material gathered by Boas for the Kwakiutl of the Northwest coast of North America implies the same for traditional Kwakiutl society. Myths interact with all other elements of social structure and organization, so that the total system of social relations in the society is not to be understood without an understanding of the role of myth in providing a wide frame of reference within which the total social behavior of the members of the society becomes significant. This proposition has been accepted into the body of generalizations about primitive society built up In the field of anthropology. It does not Imply a conception of society as an apparatus maintaining the culture as it is, since all cultures are changing by the stresses inherent in social interaction and by the choices open to individuals. The empirical data brought forward in this thesis to support the assumption that myth and social organisation are bound together in a system of social relationships demonstrate that such a system is not closed, but open to adjustment without apparent opposition. This thesis is an attempt to give fuller meaning to the generalisation that the myths of a people are bound into the total system of social relations. The proposition advanced here is that even under conditions of advanced acculturation (to Western European culture) in a small once tribal society, myth will play a part. Where the old myths fade, new ones will arise to take their places in the, changing social context. The alteration of social structure, of social organisation, and of the roles played by individuals will create the need for maintaining some ancient myths that underwrite the worthiness of the individual and group. New myths will arise to justify rapidly changing patterns of behavior under the impact of Euro-American culture. This proposition has been tested and supported by the data derived from field work. Upon the basis of the affirmation of this proposition by data derived in a small society in the process of rapid change, the above hypothesis may be generalised to suggest that in all tribal societies moving rapidly into the orbit of advanced ones, myth will not be lost. Just as social structure, social organization and the roles of individuals will change feat be fitted into new configurations, so myth will not disappear but be transfigured or newly created in order to meet the needs of people for an understanding of their changing existence. The operation of myth and social context In Cape Hudge society today is discussed in this thesis by reference to the operation of myths in two important areas of social organizations social control and values. The exploration of myth in these areas touches upon most aspects of life in the village. Intensive field work was of one month's duration in the summer of 1963 when I lived with my husband and three children in the village but casual contacts and interest in the village had extended over a ten-year period prior to the formal study. The contacts made by my husband, two teen-age children and on pre-school child extended the range of social contacts very considerably. The definition of my position as wife and mother was of prime importance to my ready acceptance. The villagers had happily been introduced to anthropologists through Helen Codere who left behind an atmosphere of admiration and trust. The villagers expressed the opinion that other villages were getting anthropologists interested in them and they thought it was high time for someone from the University to come again. The field work situation could not have been more propitious I wish to express my sincere regard for the great achievements of these people and my thanks for their generosity and hospitality. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

The subject of hunter-gatherer territoriality is still a matter of some debate in the anthropological literature. It has been asserted that territorial systems involving perimeter defence and exclusive use rights by fixed membership groups are rare among hunters and gatherers. It has also been suggested that there is an association between this form of land tenure and the evolution of complex society. Since the problem is a developmental one, archaeology, with its developmental and temporal perspective, should be able to contribute to an understanding of this phenomenon. Unfortunately, little attempt has been made to identify material correlates of territorial land use. This thesis seeks to facilitate the development of an archaeologically operational definition of hunter-gatherer territoriality. Toward this end a number of propositions are formulated which postulate relationships between territoriality and various classes of archaeologically observable data. In a comparative/contrastive format the propositions are then applied to data derived from two hunting and gathering societies, the Gitksan and Chilcotin peoples of British Columbia, the one highly territorial, the other with a flexible land use strategy of loosely defined borders and unrestricted access to resources. The study is ethnoarchaeological in that the data base against which the propositions are evaluated, is derived from ethnographic, archival, and archaeological sources. A number of kinds of material patterning related to Gitksan territoriality are identified. Whether the kinds of patterning identified here can be successfully recovered and interpreted in an archaeological context awaits the application of these findings to an archaeological data base. The degree to which the material expression of territorial land use identified in this study are typical of territorial hunters and gatherers in general, also needs to be demonstrated. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

In this thesis I have set out to examine the historic change in the primary unit of Kwakiutl property tenure as it reflects the changing character of social relations between the members of this society. In order to follow this particular development the units of Kwakiutl social organization have been situated within the history of the period under scrutiny. This study commences with the speculative reconstruction of Kwakiutl social organization just prior to direct European contact. The namima is presented here as a property holding descent group with an inalienable attachment to an exclusive estate composed of specific territories, supernatural powers, and prerogatives. As a unit of economic production and consumption the namima was able to derive all of its material sustenance from this estate. The relations between individuals and the degree of access to the fruits of the harvest were organized according to the hierarchical order within each of these descent groups. The Kwakiutl became involved in the fur trade before the end of the 18th century as European entrepreneurs extended their trans-continental network. The wealth gleaned from this trade was integrated into the Kwakiutl economy to the enhancement of the existing social order. European settlement on the Northwest coast introduced the option of participation in the wage economy. This economy offered individual Kwakiutl men and women the experience of creating wealth outside of the traditional economic unit. Individuals began to seek status on the basis of their achievements. This change exemplified the new mode of relations. Individuals who had previously related as members of a descent group were now distinguished on the basis of their acquired wealth. While namima members of high birth maintained their title to traditional properties, these properties no longer, figured significantly in the native economy. In the 1880's the Department of Indian Affairs imposed units of property tenure upon the Kwakiutl without regard for the traditional native units. The populations identified within each administrative units were forced to recognize the imposed structure in order to represent their interests. In the years following 1830, then, the namima declined as the primary unit of Kwakiutl property tenure. The Kwakiutl redefined the units of social interaction as the character of social relations changed due to the introduction of new forms of wealth and land tenure. Today the namima is a specialized concept shared by a few Kwakiutl elders, anthropologists, and several Kwakiutl individuals involved in cultural revitalization. As the Kwakiutl acquire greater political and administrative independence in the near future it is certain that the namima will continue to be redefined. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

The Sto:lo people face many challenges and issues as they create a government and justice system based on prior ways of governance and justice. Some of these challenges and issues include the documenting and synthesizing of current understanding of judicial practices, establishing principles of membership or citizenship, legitimizing their own institutions, and establishing the scope and mandate of the House of Justice. The Sto:lo people are deciding what they want their justice system to look like. They face a multitude of existing judicial models and the importation of legal practices from elsewhere. Members of the Sto:lo Nation negotiate their way through various levels of federal and provincial government bureaucracy as they form relationships with these government bodies and establish their place among them. Yet, Sto:lo members must also temper their own bureaucratic growth with the need to remain flexible and responsive to the needs of the community. Current understandings of Sto:lo justice practice frame the expectations the Sto:lo people have of their own justice system. Discursive features of previous justice practices and contemporary Sto:lo issues include the importance of elders in community decision making, the importance of community and cohesion, the strength of the family and the desire to settle problems internally without external interference, the importance of sharing resources, and the Sto:lo's connection to the spiritual world. In this paper I study the inception and growth of Sto:lo nationhood, and the creation of one of the Sto:lo Nation's emerging institutions, the House of Justice. I refer to the ethnonationalist literature of Benedict Anderson, Stanley J. Tambiah and John L. Comaroff Anderson's "imagined community" is the central metaphor for this paper. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

A cross-sectional growth study was designed to obtain information on the growth patterns of British Columbian Native Indian children. The object of the study was to establish whether growth patterns of B.C. Native Indian children living in student residences correspond to those of non-Indian reference children. The study sample consisted of all children 6 to 17 years attending the six student residences administered by the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs. The total sample size was 734 children, representing 77 reserves in the province. Standing height, sitting height, weight, arm circumference, four skinfold thicknesses (triceps, subscapular, biceps and suprailiac), and head circumference were measured according to the recommendations of the International Biological Program (Weiner and Lourie, 1969). Arm muscle diameter, circumference and area were derived according to the method of Frisancho (1974). Individual findings were plotted, as scatter diagrams against standard reference curves, data for which was obtained from Caucasian children. Results indicate a considerable growth deficit in standing and sitting height in younger children which appears to be somewhat corrected by adolescence. Weight measurements, although falling predominantly below the Iowa mean, generally reflect adequate gain with age. Arm measurements indicate well maintained musculature throughout the age-range studied, with relatively low degrees of triceps adipose tissue. Head circumference displays an initial deficit in younger children which is largely corrected by adolwscence. It was concluded that protein nutritional status of B.C. Native Indian children living in student residences may be relatively better than calorie nutritional status. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate