Increasingly, nationalist ideals are being applied by large numbers of politically unrecognized or unsatisfied ethnic communities. The appearance of movements demanding ethnic autonomy in a number of different states worldwide has helped to renew scholarly interest in nationalism. Even in Canada, there was a sharp rise in the political acumen and influence of Aboriginal groups. The resurgence of ethnic nationalism has, indeed, become one of the most striking political developments in recent decades. As a result of these events, questions are being raised about how the relationships between Aboriginal peoples and Canadian governments and society should be structured. At issue are the challenges that ethnicity and nationalism pose. Yet in spite of a genuine willingness amongst a majority of Canadians to reevaluate their place in Canadian society, Aboriginal nationalist assertions have remained largely understudied by students of nationalism. A new understanding of the roots, goals, and internal particularities of these unique ethnic movements is needed. From a survey of the scholarly literature of nationalism and Aboriginal peoples in , Canada, new conceptualizations of ethnic nationalism must be developed, ones which recognize that not all forms of assertion are destructive and dismembering to the larger political community. If Canadians are to find meaningful ways of accommodating these challenges, then incentives must be found and mechanisms developed to both preserve the wider unity of the state and help facilitate the autonomous development of Aboriginal nationalist communities. Recognizing that there are multiple ways of belonging to Canada and realizing Aboriginal self-government are such forms of accommodation. / Arts, Faculty of / Political Science, Department of / Graduate

This study explores the protocol that Non-First Nations counsellors need to follow or do when building positive relationships with a First Nations community. The purpose of this study is to provide some guidelines that Non-First Nations counsellors could utilize building positive relationships with a First Nations community. The research method involved interviews with 14 adult First Nations clients and support people and 21 Non-First Nations counsellors and support people. The Critical Incident Technique was used to elicit incidents from the 36 participants. / Graduate

This paper is basically a re-examination of the existing ethnographic literature concerning Indian tribes in four subsistence areas of North America. The purpose is twofold: to outline the principles governing the size and composition of local groups, and to draw distinctions among rules and patterns of residence. I suggest initially that patterns of residence are a key factor in the analysis of local group composition; that such patterns are at least partially rooted in ecological factors; that residence patterns will be similar in their effects on local group composition within given subsistence areas; and that major differences among residence patterns and the composition of local groups will be found only among residence patterns and local groups of different subsistence areas. The tribes of the Northwest coast region were found to have corporate local groups and definite cultural preferences for permanent residence by adult males in those local groups in which they enjoyed the greatest advantage, in terms both of material wealth and prestige. This was termed a preferred rule of residence. Because of the preferred patterns of patrilateral and matrilateral cross cousin marriage, and the elaborate complex of status and rank, this was often the local group of ego's mother's brother, that is, avunculocal residence. More commonly, however, this would be the local group of ego's wife, that is, matrilocal residence. The Sub-arctic region was divided into two areas. In the east, the local groups were corporate and residence was ideally patrilocal, i.e. with the local group of a man's father or brothers. This was based largely on status considerations and was termed a prescribed rule of residence. The ideal pattern was not always possible due to ecological factors however. In the west, local groups were not corporate. There was no ideal pattern of residence, although there was what was termed a statistical regularity of patrilocal residence. Local groups were not corporate on the Plains. Statistical regularities of both patrilocal and matrilocal residence were found, but these did not normally affect local group composition to any significant degree. The only ideal of residence was that of affiliation with a local group in which one had some kin. In the Great Basin region, local groups were not corporate. Only statistical irregularities in residence pattern were found, due to ecological factors. Several common elements were noted in the study. Descent systems had little effect on local group composition, other than by establishing a dichotomy of kin and non-kin. Local groups tended to be bilateral groups of kin, on the Northwest coast due largely to sociological factors, and in the Sub-arctic and Great Basin regions because of situational factors. The local groups of the Plains region were clusters of bilateral groups of kin. Local groups were found to be limited in size, both maximum and minimum, by such factors as ecology. Within those limits precise patterns were based both on sociological factors and on such aspects of ecology as demography. The final chapter of the thesis is a general discussion of the various factors affecting both local groups and residence patterns. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This thesis attempts to examine the nature of the system of land tenure as it exists among the Upper Thompson Indians who live in the vicinity of Lytton on the Fraser River. It is a fact that among Indian bands in Canada, there exists the possibility of at least one system of land tenure being in operation and this is as it is officially laid down in the Indian Act. There are instances recorded of the instigation of this official system producing conflict between the administration and the Indian because it violated certain aspects of an indigenous system. It was noticed that among the Upper Thompson, conflict with respect to the question of land tenure was minimal and, as a result, an examination of why this might be so was thought to be of interest. The information for the study was gathered by essentially three main methods: (1) personal interviews with members of nearly every household on the reserve lands; (2) personal access to various files in the Indian Office, combined with discussion with various administrators; and (3) as participant observer among the Indians of the region as they carried out their daily activities. It was concluded in the examination that the official system of land tenure was focused on land which was for the benefit of the band as a whole, and this land was for the most part uninhabited. The administrators were not attempting to instigate a system of land tenure at the level of the individual Indian and consequently he has been left to his own devices to organize how the tenure of land is to be established. This has resulted in considerable variations in the Indian system of land tenure being allowed to evolve. These variations are not articulated normative distinctions by the Indians themselves; rather, they have been observed as methods of behaving with respect to changing sets of facts, such as availability to individual wage labour, accessibility of the Indian to the administrator, and vice-versa, and the relative proximity of the various residential sites to the town of Lytton. The disposition of these factors, among others, has been instrumental in effecting both the extent of the groups which have tenure of land in the region, as well as the nature of the affective significance associated with land. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

In the era preceding European contact there were many cultural and linguistic sub-groups within the Indian population of the North West Coast area of North America. Intercommunication among the several sub-groups appears to have been limited. Although these people had varying attitudes to their young and although their training devices were informal, they educated their children systematically and with objectives which encompassed more than mere race survival. They taught the children practical and social skills and inculcated moral values by techniques common in modern times. The first non-Indians to arrive in the area widened the horizons of the inhabitants somewhat, and had the Indians not been subsequently overwhelmed by waves of settlers, their adoption of a new and broader culture might have progressed more rapidly. They were, however, isolated by a system of reserves and relegated to an inferior social and economic status which tended to aggravate their time-honoured distrust for outsiders. The missionaries, with financial assistance from the Federal Government, first provided the children of British Columbia's Indians with a measure of segregated, formal education. Their efforts met with limited success. Some literacy, nevertheless, was achieved enabling the majority to accept the Christian religion and providing a foundation for the better organized education program which was to develop. After World War II when the Indians themselves began to remonstrate, other citizens became concerned about the ineffectual education being provided to Indian children. Two results of these protests developed concurrently—the Government of Canada took a series of steps which vastly improved the existing system of segregated schools and the public school authorities, with the active support of federal officials, aggressively undertook to integrate the Indian children into non-Indian schools. With the full consent of their parents, almost half of the Indian pupils have now been integrated; the remainder continue to receive their education separated from other Canadian children. There are two major difficulties in increasing the proportion of Indian children attending the public schools: [ ... ] / Education, Faculty of / Graduate

The purpose of this study is to enquire into the problems which face the British Columbia Indians in seeking employment, or in working as members of the labour force of the province. It also seeks to discover to what extent and in what ways the native Indians have been assimilated into the provincial labour force. An examination of these aspects of the life of the Indians should bring to light some clues as to their social needs as a minority group in the province. The study was begun with a full appreciation of the scarcity of information on the subject. The survey was confined to the Vancouver region, and to the predominant occupations, in view of the limitations of time and the fact that the population is scattered over a wide area. Interviewing of the Indian people themselves was the chief method used. As there are very few Indians on Social Assistance in the metropolitan area, material from this source was not available. The results show that the coastal Indians of British Columbia, who form a majority of the native population, are limited in their range of employment to the primary industries, chiefly fishing and lumbering. This limitation is undoubtedly favoured by cultural preference, but it is also clearly due to lack of vocational training for other occupations. Rigid governmental supervision during the past eighty years has also inhibited many from competing with the general population at the ordinary levels of opportunity. The prime purpose of the study is to underline and illustrate the welfare implications of employment. The importance of educational factors is strongly brought out. There are individual examples of the overcoming of the economic and psychological obstacles. But reforms in status and opportunities will be necessary to effect more substantial change. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

The purpose of this study was to identify and describe certain socioeconomic and socio-psychological characteristics which differentiate the Indian adult education participant from the non-participant, and which collectively contribute to an understanding of Indian adult education participation. The study was conducted on the Mount Currie Indian Reserve in the Pemberton Valley of British Columbia, The analytical survey method was used and data was collected by means of structured interviews with a random sample of eighty-six adult band members. Two hypotheses were tested to determine whether or not there were any statistically significant differences between adult education participants and non-participants with respect to seventeen socio-economic and thirteen socio-psychological variable characteristics. A third hypothesis was tested to determine whether or not there were any significant differences between the variables studied when they were considered simultaneously or independently as predictors of participation. Of the eighty-six respondents, fourty-two had enrolled in an adult education class during the preceding three years and were classed as participants. Statistically significant differences were found between the participants and non-participants with respect to eight of the socio-economic characteristics studied including sex, wish for further adult education participation, social participation, occupational prestige of desired job, occupational prestige of desired vocational training, receipt of educational assistance, receipt of unemployment insurance assistance, and total annual income. Of the socio-psychological characteristics studied, statistically significant differences were found between the participant's and non-participant's levels of alienation, activism, trust, family integration, and attitudes towards education. The most powerful single predictor of participation was found to be alienation, with the least alienated being those most likely to participate. However, five other variables including total annual income, number of children, social participation, trust and integration with relatives when considered simultaneously were found to be more powerful as joint predictors of participation than any single independent variable. / Education, Faculty of / Graduate

This thesis traces the development of political action by the Indians of British Columbia. The Europeans who occupied British Columbia in the nineteenth century placed the natives under a colonial style of administration. Without citizenship or representation in the federal or provincial government for many years, the Indians tried to present their grievances to the government mainly through protest organizations. The effectiveness of Indian protest organizations was weakened by the inability of the natives to unite in one provincial association. The diversity of cultural, religious, and economic factors in the Indian population caused persistent divisiveness. Regional political organizations were formed to resolve local problems. Finally, the prospect of the removal of the Indian Act provided a catalyst for the formation of a single provincial Indian political organization. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

The primary objective of this thesis is to examine the relationship between household income dimensions — that is, the amount, size, and kind of income — and associated household types. The relationship between different types of income and total income is also examined. In addition attention is given to a number of other variables which could affect the basic relationship. The main argument associates the nuclear family with skilled wage labour; the extended family with kinship controlled resources; and the consanguineal household with unskilled labour and/or welfare dependence. Hypotheses are stated which suggest the relationship between stability of income with different types of households. Analysis of the household income profiles of two reserves in British Columbia was undertaken in order to test the theory. The two reserves used in the study were Alert Bay Reserve and Skidegate Reserve. Each income source was characterized as being one of six possible types of income: wages, kinship, social services, reciprocity, kind and unearned. Tests consisted of proportion comparisons between households of different types and their associated income profiles. Data was examined separately for each of the reserves. Support was found for the predicted association between high income totals and extended family households. There was some support for the proposition that nuclear families are high per-capita income families, but no support for the proposition that extended family households are low per-capita income households. While there were only a few cases of consanguineal households there was strong support for the proposition that such households are welfare or pension income dependent households. There was no association between income sector dominance and household type. Because the data available did not allow for an examination of skill level and stability of income it was not possible to do a thorough examination of the argument for income dominance and certain household types. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This thesis deals with a disturbance which broke out in April of 1864 when a group of Chilcotin Indians massacred seventeen workmen on a trail being built from Bute Inlet to the interior of British Columbia, The main endeavours of this thesis are three-fold. It seeks to provide an accurate account of the main events: the killings and the para-military expeditions which resulted from them. It attempts to establish as far as possible the causes of the massacres. Finally, it examines the attitudes of whites towards the Indians as revealed in the actions they took and the views they expressed in connection with the uprising and the resulting expeditions to the Chilcotin territory. Published and unpublished primary source material has given a detailed and verifiable picture of the events of the Chilcotin Uprising, and of various background events. It has revealed, besides, the verbal reactions of many whites and even of Indians who were involved. To seek the underlying causes of the uprising and to get a clear view of white attitudes it has been necessary to probe both Chilcotin and European backgrounds. The studies of others have helped to shed light on Chilcotin society prior to the time of the uprising, on European thought as it developed in the Nineteenth Century, and on the general development of relationships between the white man and the Indian in British Columbia up to the period with which this thesis deals. The causes, of the uprising I have summarized under five main headings. The "chief motivating factor" was the rash threat "by a white man to bring sickness on the Indians. The "predisposing causes" were events and circumstances which had no direct connection with the Chilcotins' decision to kill the whites but which must have helped to shape their adverse attitudes towards the whites. The "aggravating grievances" were a number of occurrences directly connected with the trail-building enterprise which may be regarded as grievances from the Chilcotins’ viewpoint, aggravating the harm done by the threat made against the Chilcotins. The "material incentive" of plunder played its part in encouraging the uprising. Finally, there were a number of "facilitating factors" which made the uprising possible—factors making for the initial weakness of the whites and the strength of the Chilcotins. The attitudes of the whites towards the Indians as revealed during the period of the Chilcotin Uprising are difficult to summarize without distortion. But five main points have been made in this thesis: (1) The whites at this time displayed, in varying forms, a universal confidence in the inherent superiority of European civilization, (2) Only to a limited extent can we identify particular attitudes expressed towards the Indians with particular classes or groups of colonial society. (3) Prejudice and questionings regarding white actions towards the Indian both emerged as a result of the uprising. There is evidence that there were many whites in Nineteenth Century British Columbia who not only used individual judgement in making generalizations about the Indian but were willing to "test their stereotypes against reality" when they had dealings with particular Indians or Indian groups. (4) There was no really general fear for personal safety among the Europeans during the Chilcotin Uprising. (5) As a general rule we may say that those whom circumstances cast in the role of adversaries of the Chilcotins came to adopt increasingly hostile attitudes towards the Indians. Those who were less directly involved or who were cast in roles necessitating some understanding of the Chilcotins tended to adopt less hostile attitudes towards them. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate