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This study explores various aspects of the spelling and punctuation development of six Tohono O'odham (Papago) children during their third and fourth grade years. The data used, which was collected in a prior study, consisted of 215 texts (13,793 words) written in natural classroom settings as part of the teacher's ongoing writing curriculum. Field notes decribing what the subjects did as they wrote, as well as written interviews, supplemented the texts themselves. A number of specific features were examined to explore the subjects' use of various level of linguistic information about spelling. Those features included: initial letters, vowel phonemes, consonant digraphs, the letters C and G, consonant gemination, bound morphemes, and homophones. Spellings involving permutation (changes in letter order) and the letters E and Y as final markers, as well as those spellings which were real words, were also examined. Finally, differences between spellers, the subjects' use of punctuation and capitalization, and orthography in the classroom context were analyzed. A number of conclusions were drawn from the analysis. The subjects spelled most words conventionally. The more frequently a word appeared in the subjects' writing, the more likely it was to be spelled conventionally. Selected orthographic features varied widely in how conventionally they were spelled, with those which were less predictable or more abstract tending to be more difficult. Almost every spelling feature examined showed growth from third to fourth grade. The invented spellings of particular features tended to reflect understandable, logical processes. Invented spellings which were either real words or permutations of the intended word were common. There were differences between children not only in how conventionally they spelled but in the types of invented spellings they produced. Punctuation was more difficult than spelling for the subjects, and its use varied greatly between subjects. Capitalization was comparable to spelling in how conventionally it was used. Children used a variety of linguistic information and spelling strategies as they wrote. There was evidence that punctuation usage was driven (at least in some cases) by conscious hypotheses about how it works. Children's metalinguistic knowledge about orthography may or may not parallel their use of it.

Research into the comprehension of pronominal anaphora in reading has lead to contradictory conclusions about the role of pronouns in text and about how and when they are processed by the reader. This study investigated pronoun assignment from the point of view of the writer. Pronouns and other referring expressions were examined in the writing of six native American (Tohono O'odom) children over two years while in third and fourth grade. The young writers appropriately used and controlled the full range of pronouns in regard to person, number, case and gender. In the two hundred ten text analyzed, pronoun frequency was actually greater than the pronoun frequency in professionally authored text. This finding is attributed to an overgeneralization of the language principle of economy identified by Kenneth Goodman which states that pronouns are used whenever possible except where ambiguity would result. Unnecessary repetition of the noun phrase is, thus, avoided. That the young writers conform to the rule provides evidence that they understand and control the pronoun system. Reference establishment, reference miscues, and genre influences were investigated in relation to pronoun choice, strategies for choosing, and patterns of ambiguity. Strategies for avoiding ambiguity included the use of naming and length to disambiguate. Reference ambiguities were rare and occurred primarily in situations where the text merged with the context as when the definite article or demonstrative is used to point to something in the general context of the writing situation such as a picture or reference material. Although related indirectly to genre, the specific conditions of the assignment were found to affect the amount and kind of ambiguity most directly. Developmental effects were examined in relation to sense of audience. Implications are that the direct teaching of pronominal anaphora is not only a necessary but may be counterproductive because of the unnatural focus on something that is already controlled. This study confirms and supports the strength of a whole language classroom where a writing process approach is used.

Today there are more than fifty million acres on American Indian reservations and Indian people can determine, to a great extent, what happens on their land. One way Indians can keep the renewable aspect of their land is by considering its use in a nonconsumable way, such as with the creation of parks. This dissertation addresses and analyzes policy and management concerns related to selected parks on the Navajo and Zuni reservations. Any successful venture with Indian people must entail a blend of cultural awareness and sensitivity along with federal-tribal policy and history. To that extent, Indians as ecologists before the arrival of Europeans to this continent, and an extensive review of federal Indian policy is offered. With the establishment of any park certain issues will arise that are significant to the creation and management of the area. The parks analyzed in detail are Monument Valley Tribal Park, Canyon de Chelly National Monument, and the newly established Zuni-Cibola National Historical Park. General processes of management and specific issues of concern are identified and analyzed. Methods of tribal-National Park Service cooperation are discussed. An administrative history of the Navajo Tribal Parks system is also presented.

The architecture of the modern Hopi pueblo of Oraibi provides important data for the interpretation of prehistoric villages in the American Southwest and elsewhere. Using historic photographs, maps, and other documents, architectural change at Oraibi is examined over a period of almost 80 years, from the early 1870s to 1948, a span that includes an episode of population growth and a substantial and rapid population decline. Because archaeologists make extensive use architecture for a variety of types of prehistoric reconstructions, from population size to social organization, understanding the dynamics of puebloan architecture is important. This study offers several principals which condition architectural dynamics in pueblo-like structures in the Southwest and in other parts of the world. Four types of architectural change are identified at Oraibi: rooms were abandoned, dismantled, rebuilt, and newly constructed. Some changes were the result of the introduction of EuroAmerican technology and governmental policies. An increase in the rate of architectural change, especially new construction and rebuilding, suggests that population was increasing during the late 19th century. Patterns of settlement growth involved both the expansion of existing houses and the construction of new houses. Oraibi architecture, with contiguous rows of houses, may have restricted the development of extended families. After the 1906 Oraibi split, half the population left the village, and in the following decades, population continued to decline. Abandoned houses were often rebuilt and reoccupied by remaining residents. The number of rooms per house declined, especially upper story rooms. The areas of the settlement that continued to be occupied or were reoccupied were those around important ceremonial areas, such as the Main Plaza. The examination of architecture at historic Oraibi supplies links between social processes and architectural dynamics that are applicable to the prehistoric record. Patterns of intra-household architectural change and of settlement growth and abandonment, observed at Oraibi, provide keys to the investigation of similar processes at prehistoric sites.

A clear understanding of interactions between the arid Southwestern environment and that area's prehistoric inhabitants has been a goal of Southwestern archaeology. This research has reconstructed annual corn and dry bean crop yields for southwestern Colorado from A.D. 650 to 1968, as well as the amounts of those foods available for each of those years. Colorado's five southwestern county dry farming corn and dry bean crop records were combined to create two regional crop series. Modern technology's increasing influence was recognized as being present in the two series. This influence was felt to parallel Colorado's statewide fertilizer consumption and was removed using a multiple regression procedure. Two modern technology free regional crop series resulted. These two series, along with the original two historic crop series were calibrated against five Four Corners tree-ring chronologies from four localities. Both Douglas-fir and pinyon were employed in the calibration. The calibration process used multiple regression so that each series' current annual crop yield could be predicted using one or more of 25 separate dendrochronological predictors. The regression equation deemed most suitable for predicting each of the four crop series was utilized to reconstruct annual crop yield estimates for the A.D. 652-1968 period. Normal verification was impossible since additional independent crop data were lacking. The reconstructed crop yield series were evaluated statistically. Portions of them were compared against historically recorded events. These two types of testing suggested that the retrodictions were probably valid. The crop yield reconstructions provided the basic data for four sets of storage simulations that attempted to determine corn and dry bean availability for each year from A.D. 652 to 1968, given certain assumptions about the levels of storage technology available to the Anasazi of southwestern Colorado. A. E. Douglass' A.D. 1276-1299 "Great Drought" appears to be confirmed. A number of additional famines or food crises have also been recognized. In addition, periods when food was super abundant have been identified. It now appears that much of the Four Corners large public construction projects were undertaken during and perhaps because of these periods of excess surplus.

This study illustrates the importance of finding out whether painted ceramics represent the total repertoire of decorated artifacts that are expected to carry social information. Painted designs on pottery are the focus of study because (1) painted decoration has had great importance in Southwest archaeology for studying social interaction, cultural affiliation, and fine-grained chronology based on stylistic change, and (2) painted decoration is less constrained by technology and intended vessel function than other attributes, and is most free to vary for social or ideological reasons. Two assumptions underlying previous work on ceramic design "messaging" are examined. First, are ceramics the most important medium for carrying social information? Second, is ethnicity the kind of information they are most likely to carry? These questions are addressed in a case study from the American Southwest. Decorated pottery, baskets, textiles, figurines, and rock art from the seventh century Basketmaker III period occupation of rock shelters in the Prayer Rock District, northeastern Arizona are examined. Comparison of design structure and content across these different media reveals two decorative styles, one for the portable household artifacts and one for rock art. In this case, pottery does not carry the full range of potential social information signalled by applied designs. The contexts of these two decorative styles are suggested by considering aspects of artifact function, design visibility, spatial distribution of artifacts, rock art, and architecture, together with hypotheses about gender differentiation and community organization. It is concluded that for the Prayer Rock Basketmakers, pottery decoration may have carried messages that had more to do with gender than ethnicity.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of selected student background variables and traits with academic persistence of first-time, full-time, Native American students enrolled at a major Southwestern university from the 1988 to 1990 school years. The predictors associated with persistence of Native American students were identified by use of the Student Information Form, a survey questionnaire devised by Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP, 1990). The survey was administered during each Fall semester Freshmen Orientation to a total of 275 Native American students, 147 of whom voluntarily returned the questionnaire. Of this group, 83 questionnaires constituted the sample. The research centered on an examination of probability for six predictors and five psychological characteristics with academic persistence used as a dependent variable. The six predictors were: (1) high school grade point average, (2) American College Test (ACT) scores, (3) residence status, (4) parental income, (5) parental education, and (6) financial aid. The Logistic Regression Analysis was utilized to analyze data, and the obtained findings indicated that there was no significant correlation between Native American students' high school grade point average, ACT scores, parental income, parental education, residency, or financial aid and their academic persistence at a Southwestern university between 1988 to 1990. The analyses suggested a significant correlation between remaining at a university for four or more semesters and leadership, attitude, and values, and future goals. These three factors appeared to be the best predictors of academic persistence for Native American students.