<p>Promotion of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF), (giving breast milk only without any solids or liquids), has proved to be very challenging in the South African context, although this infant feeding practice has been found to protect babies against diarrhoea and respiratory tract infections and to carry a lower risk of HIV infection than mixed feeding (breastfeeding combined with formula or solids). Study design: The PROMISE-EBF study is a multi-country cluster randomised trial to examine peer support to promote exclusive breastfeeding in Africa. For the South African site in the PROMISE-EBF study, three sites, Paarl, Rietvlei and Umlazi, were selected because of their different geographic settings and each site operated as a separate stratum for cluster selection and randomisation purposes. The clusters were then randomised into intervention and control arms making a total of 17 clusters in each arm. HIV positive and negative women in the intervention arm received support on their choice of infant feeding from the peer supporters who visited them at their homes while the women in the control group only received the standard infant feeding counselling and support provided by health care&nbsp / workers at health facilities. Data collection: Mothers were interviewed at recruitment during the antepartum period to establish eligibility, obtain informed consent and data on socio-economic status. Home visits were scheduled for data collection by trained data collectors at 3, 6, 12 and 24 weeks after birth. Analysis of results: This mini-thesis was a secondary analysis of the PROMISE-EBF data focusing on the South African data only. The data was adjusted for clustering and analysed using SAS. Comparison of variables between the intervention and control groups within sites was done. Results: A significant difference, regarding counselling and infant feeding practices, was observed among all women who received peer support compared to those who received the standard antenatal counselling, with more women in the intervention group (20.5%) practising EBF than those in the control group (12.8%) by Week 3. When the women‟s HIV status was considered, more than 65% of HIV positive and 40% of HIV negative women practised MF and EFF (giving formula milk only with no breast milk) throughout the study, respectively, regardless of the group they were in. For women who hadintended to practise EBF at recruitment, 33% in the control group and 20% in the intervention group actually practised EBF by Week 3. Regarding disclosure and feeding choice, 77.4% of women who had disclosed their HIV status actually practised MF versus 8.6% who practised EBF by Week 3.Conclusion: Community peer counselling should be strengthened as the results from this study showed that a high percentage of women who practised EBF were those who had received counselling, irrespective of their HIV status. The high percentage of HIV positive women who practised high risk feeding, despite receiving infant counselling, is of concern. Disclosure of the women‟s HIV status did not translate to them practising low risk infant feeding methods, which may suggest that there are other issues that determine the women‟s choice of infant feeding.</p>

Introdução: Intervenções educacionais que preparam as equipes de saúde para a promoção e apoio a práticas alimentares saudáveis na infância podem ser efetivas na melhoria dos desfechos relacionados à saúde, nutrição e desenvolvimento infantil. Objetivo: Avaliar se a utilização de um material de educação permanente, elaborado para apoiar o tutor da Estratégia Amamenta e Alimenta Brasil (EAAB), é efetivo em melhorar indicadores de implementação da EAAB e indicadores de alimentação infantil em crianças menores de um ano. Métodos: Estudo de intervenção do tipo antes e depois realizado no município de Embu das Artes, SP. A intervenção consistiu em disponibilizar o Manual como material de apoio às atividades educativas sobre aleitamento materno e alimentação complementar que poderia ser usado por tutores da EAAB. Os tutores realizaram atividades de treinamento com as equipes de saúde durante oito meses. A coleta de dados ocorreu nos momentos pré e pós intervenção e em ambos foram aplicados: teste de conhecimentos sobre aleitamento materno (AM) e alimentação complementar (AC) aos tutores e profissionais de saúde; questionário auto aplicado junto aos gerentes para caracterização das UBS quanto às ações de promoção do AM e AC e entrevistas junto às mães sobre as práticas de alimentação da criança. Análise de dados: a tese gerou 3 manuscritos: No primeiro com o objetivo de avaliar as práticas de alimentação complementar das crianças de 6 a 12 meses utilizou-se análise de regressão de Poisson com modelagem hierarquizada para determinar os fatores associados ao consumo de alimentos ultra processados. O segundo e o terceiro manuscritos avaliaram os efeitos da intervenção. O segundo teve como foco a aplicação do Manual e sua influência na implementação da EAAB, utilizando duas abordagens: na quantitativa foram analisados dimensões e indicadores do processo de implementação com base no modelo lógico da intervenção e na qualitativa foi avaliada a percepção dos tutores acerca do processo de utilização do Manual. O terceiro manuscrito avaliou a efetividade do Manual na melhoria dos indicadores de alimentação infantil e para tanto utilizou-se análise de regressão de Poisson multinível com modelagem hierarquizada. Resultados: Manuscrito 1. A prevalência de consumo de alimentos ultra processados foi de 43,1% entre os menores de um ano. Baixa escolaridade materna e falta de atendimento na primeira semana de vida da criança foram fatores associados ao consumo de alimentos ultra processados. Manuscrito 2. O Manual foi utilizado por 9 dos 13 tutores do município e a intervenção em algum grau foi realizada em 11 de 13 UBS. Em média foram realizadas 3,5 [0-5] atividades complementares por UBS. A média de acertos dos tutores no teste de conhecimentos inicial foi 31,43 ± 5,25 e final 34,86 ± 4,45; p= 0,021. Entre os trabalhadores a média no pré-teste foi 26,09 ± 4,45 e no pós-teste 30,28 ± 3,55; p= 0,002. Em média o número de critérios de certificação alcançados pelas UBS foi maior depois da intervenção (pré 3 [1-6] versus pós 5 [3-6]) e apresentou consistência com a percepção de mudanças dos gerentes assim como com o número de atividades conduzidas pelos tutores. A avaliação da intervenção sob a ótica dos tutores revelou contribuições do uso do Manual para sua atuação. Manuscrito 3. A intervenção foi efetiva para a redução da falta de diversidade alimentar mínima e da falta de adequação alimentar, indicador que avalia a frequência, consistência e diversidade da AC. Porém, não se verificou efeito sobre a interrupção do AME. Conclusões: A investigação das práticas de alimentação infantil na população estudada evidenciou um alto consumo de alimentos ultra processados, reforçando a necessidade de intervenções que promovam práticas alimentares saudáveis na infância. O uso do Manual de Apoio ao Tutor melhorou o conhecimento dos tutores e trabalhadores da atenção básica e promoveu mudanças no processo de trabalho das equipes, refletidas no alcance dos critérios de certificação na EAAB, evidenciando o potencial de uma intervenção educativa usando metodologia crítico-reflexiva. Além disso, a intervenção mostrou-se efetiva para melhorar as práticas de alimentação complementar na população estudada. / Introduction - Educational interventions that prepare healthcare teams to promote infant feeding practices can be effective in improving outcomes related to health, nutrition and child development. Objective - To evaluate whether a continuing education tool (the Manual to Support Estratégia Amamenta e Alimenta Brasil (EAAB) Tutors) can improve EAAB implementation indicators and feeding practices in infants under one year of age. Methods - A before and after study was conducted at 13 primary healthcare units (PHU) in Embu das Artes, São Paulo. The intervention consisted in providing the Manual to support educational activities on breastfeeding and complementary feeding that could be used by tutors of EAAB. Tutors performed comprehensive training activities with healthcare teams over eight months. In both cross-sectional studies (pre and post intervention) a questionnaire was applied to the managers from the 13 PHU to characterize the healthcare service and actions to promote breastfeeding and complementary feeding; knowledge tests were also applied to tutors and health workers indicators of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices were assessed by interviewing 1,159 mothers. Analysis: the thesis resulted in three manuscripts - The first one aimed to evaluate the complementary feeding practices of children from 6 to 12 months with a focus on the consumption of ultraprocessed foods (UPF) and multiple hierarchical models were performed. The second and third manuscripts evaluated the effects of the intervention. The second evaluated the application of the Manual and its influence on the implementation of EAAB, with two approaches: in the quantitative, the dimensions and indicators of the implementation process were analyzed based on the logical model of the intervention; in the qualitative approach the perception of the tutors about the process of manuals\' use was evaluated. The third manuscript evaluated the effectiveness of the Manual in improving indicators of infant feeding practices. Multivariate analysis was performed using Poisson multilevel regression Results: Manuscript 1: The prevalence of UPF consumption was 43.1% among children. Lower maternal education and lack of early assistance at the PHU were factors associated with higher UPF consumption. Manuscript 2: The Manual was used by 9 of 13 tutors and the intervention was performed in 11 of 13 PHU. In average, 3.5 [0-5] comprehensive training activities (CAs) were performed by PHU. The mean scores of tutors in the initial knowledge test were 31.43 ± 5.25 and final 34.86 ± 4.45; p = 0.021. Among health workers, the mean in the pre-test was 26.09 ± 4.45 and in the post-test 30.28 ± 3.55; p = 0.002. In average, the number of certification criteria fulfilled by the PHS was higher after intervention (before 3 [1-6]; after 5 [3-6]) and was consistent with the changes perceived by managers as well as with the number of CAs carried out by tutors. Tutors\' perception revealed contributions of the Manual for their action. Manuscript 3: The intervention was effective in reducing the lack of minimum food diversity and the lack of food adequacy, an indicator that evaluates the frequency, consistency and diversity of complementary feeding. However, there was no effect on interruption of exclusive breastfeeding. Conclusions: The investigation of infant feeding practices in the study population evidenced a high ultra-processed foods consumption, reinforcing the need of interventions to promote healthy eating practices in childhood. The use of the Manual to Support EAAB Tutors improved the knowledge of tutors and primary healthcare workers and promoted improvements in the work process of healthcare teams, reflected in the achievement of the EAAB certification criteria, evidencing the potential of an educational intervention using problem-based learning methodology. In addition, the intervention proved to be effective in improving complementary feeding practices in the study population.

Magister Public Health - MPH / Promotion of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF), (giving breast milk only without any solids or liquids), has proved to be very challenging in the South African context, although this infant feeding practice has been found to protect babies against diarrhoea and respiratory tract infections and to carry a lower risk of HIV infection than mixed feeding (breastfeeding combined with formula or solids). Study design: The PROMISE-EBF study is a multi-country cluster randomised trial to examine peer support to promote exclusive breastfeeding in Africa. For the South African site in the PROMISE-EBF study, three sites, Paarl, Rietvlei and Umlazi, were selected because of their different geographic settings and each site operated as a separate stratum for cluster selection and randomisation purposes. The clusters were then randomised into intervention and control arms making a total of 17 clusters in each arm. HIV positive and negative women in the intervention arm received support on their choice of infant feeding from the peer supporters who visited them at their homes while the women in the control group only received the standard infant feeding counselling and support provided by health care workers at health facilities. Data collection: Mothers were interviewed at recruitment during the antepartum period to establish eligibility, obtain informed consent and data on socio-economic status. Home visits were scheduled for data collection by trained data collectors at 3, 6, 12 and 24 weeks after birth. Analysis of results: This mini-thesis was a secondary analysis of the PROMISE-EBF data focusing on the South African data only. The data was adjusted for clustering and analysed using SAS. Comparison of variables between the intervention and control groups within sites was done. Results: A significant difference, regarding counselling and infant feeding practices, was observed among all women who received peer support compared to those who received the standard antenatal counselling, with more women in the intervention group (20.5%) practising EBF than those in the control group (12.8%) by Week 3. When the women's HIV status was considered, more than 65% of HIV positive and 40% of HIV negative women practised MF and EFF (giving formula milk only with no breast milk) throughout the study, respectively, regardless of the group they were in. For women who hadintended to practise EBF at recruitment, 33% in the control group and 20% in the intervention group actually practised EBF by Week 3. Regarding disclosure and feeding choice, 77.4% of women who had disclosed their HIV status actually practised MF versus 8.6% who practised EBF by Week 3.Conclusion: Community peer counselling should be strengthened as the results from this study showed that a high percentage of women who practised EBF were those who had received counselling, irrespective of their HIV status. The high percentage of HIV positive women who practised high risk feeding, despite receiving infant counselling, is of concern. Disclosure of the women's HIV status did not translate to them practising low risk infant feeding methods, which may suggest that there are other issues that determine the women's choice of infant feeding. / South Africa

Includes bibliographical references (p. 51-57). / Exclusive breastfeeding (mother's milk only, with the exclusion of all other food or drink) reduces breast milk transmission of HIV compared with mixed feeding. This study was part of formative work for a community-based un-blinded randomised controlled trial (RCT) in an urban township with high antenatal HIV prevalence in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa. The RCT sought to determine whether an integrated package of home-based care delivered by community health workers (CHWs) increases uptake of prevention of mother-to-child-transmission (PMTCT) interventions and improves neonatal outcomes. One example of where counselling is used is in Behaviour Change Communication (BCC) approaches. A counselling booklet, used by CHWs during home visits, was part of the integrated package. The primary objective of this study was to document the socio-cultural context in which infant feeding and caring decisions were made. The secondary objective was to field test the draft counselling booklet for the RCT. Methods This qualitative study used focus groups (n=8 groups) and individual interviews (n=6). All participants, of unknown HIV status, were purposively sampled from the study site. The focus group participants included, in separate groups, eight MRC researchers; 14 pregnant women (two separate groups of seven each); six non-pregnant women; eight older women; five men and 15 CHWs (separated into two groups). Results Data showed that socio-cultural factors, like the lack of social support systems; uncertainty regarding the role of men in infant feeding and caring issues; local beliefs and practices that encouraged risky infant caring practices; the lack of supply of formula and CHWs' lack of breastfeeding knowledge and experience; and HIV-related stigma may directly or indirectly, drive mothers to practice non-exclusive infant feeding. BCC principles acknowledge that people are affected greatly by social pressures exerted not only by their peers, but also by their larger communities (Bentley et al., 1999). For vi example, with regard to the support systems, both pregnant as well as younger women felt that feeding and caring decisions regarding their infants were mostly made by older women ' their husbands were seldom involved in such decisions. In relation to HIV-related stigma, many pregnant women felt that some clinics were not very supportive regarding HIV disclosure. In terms of health system factors, CHWs said that they were sometimes ill-equipped to deal with issues of disclosure due to a lack of training and confusion around the key feeding and caring messages. With regard to infant caring practices, the data revealed risky practices (using soap enemas and inappropriate hand washing practices), even amongst CHWs. Participants said they would share the booklet with others in the community as it taught them important lessons regarding infant feeding and caring practices. For some, the pictures in the booklet enhanced their understanding of 'old' messages. Participants identified several weaknesses in the booklet and suggested that it be less repetitive; that voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) be given priority in earlier rather than later visits; that unfamiliar terms is explained; more pictures included; and the general tone of messages improved. Literacy rates were low among older women and some men in the study. Conclusion and Recommendations Socio-cultural factors drive mothers to practice non-exclusive feeding and care for their infants in ways that may unwittingly increase the risk of HIV transmission. There is a need for CHWs to include family members in discussions about feeding so that they can change their thinking around infant-feeding and caring issues. The data suggests that VCT is not given priority in the counselling booklet and support is lacking in some clinics, therefore policy makers should ensure that support for VCT becomes a priority in the future. Furthermore, some CHWs were confused about the messages they are disseminating, therefore, the training that facility managers give to CHWs should be adapted to suit socio-cultural contexts so that CHWs are better equipped to communicate messages pertaining to infant feeding and caring appropriately to mothers. With the data revealing general acceptability of risky infant caring practices, even amongst CHWs, the vii health system needs to look at how it will effectively change health-related practices among health professionals. With literacy rates being low among older women and some men in the study, it was therefore recommended that gaining skills in materials design and improving CHWs' understanding of the BCC process, booklets such as this one needs to be designed together with the primary user in mind.

Choice of nutrition has a great effect on the early development of human growth. Despite increased knowledge on the benefit of breastfeeding to both mother and child, some mothers still choose to formula feed. The purpose of this study is to explain how maternal health contributes to choices. The theory of maternal role attainment and the social cognitive theory are used to evaluate these feeding choices. This study tests for the association between maternal weight status and choice of infant feeding practices, the association between postpartum depression and choice of feeding and finally, if depression mediates the relationship between maternal weight gain and infant feeding choices. This retrospective cohort study employed a quantitative approach, utilizing secondary data with a sample size of 4902, retrieved from Infant Feeding Practices Study II. The data contained information on pregnant women in their third trimester until the first year of infants' life. Logistic regression was employed to answer these research questions. The result indicated that compared to those who are obese, mothers with normal weight are 29.6% more likely to breastfeed. Depressed mothers are 45.9% less likely to breastfeed. There is no possible mediation effect identified in this study. Further studies may need to collect mother's depression status prior to conception. Based on the outcome of this study, there is a need for caregivers to identify at-risk mothers prior to delivery while offering solutions that contribute to better feeding choices. For social change, mothers who are overweight or those experiencing depression prior to conception will make better feeding choices if they receive adequate support and counseling on the implication of their health condition on their infants.