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No description available.

Lyme borreliosis is a tick-transmitted infectious disease. The causative agents are spiral-shaped bacteria and the most common sign of infection is a skin rash at the site of the tick bite. If not treated with antibiotics, the bacteria can disseminate and cause a variety of different manifestations including arthritis, carditis or neurological problems. The disease is a zoonosis and the bacteria are maintained in nature by different vertebrate reservoir host animals. In Europe, three different Borrelia genospecies cause Lyme borreliosis: B. burgdorferi, B. afzelii and B. garinii. The latter depends in part on birds as its reservoir host. B. garinii bacteria have been found in a marine enzootic infection cycle worldwide and also among terrestrial birds. This thesis suggests that passerine birds and seabirds constitute an important reservoir for B. garinii bacteria also with clinical importance. We have found bacteria very similar to Lyme borreliosis causing isolates in ticks infesting migrating passerine birds. The birds not only transport infected ticks, but are competent reservoir hosts, as measured by their ability to infect naïve ticks. Their role as a reservoir host is dependent on their foraging behavior, where ground-dwelling birds are of greater importance than other species. When comparing B. garinii isolates from Europe, the Arctic and North Pacific, and including isolates from seabirds, passerine birds, Ixodes ricinus ticks and Lyme borreliosis patients, we found that phylogenetic grouping was not necessarily dependent on geographical or biological origin. B. garinii from seabirds were very heterogeneous and found in all different groups. Therefore, the marine and the terrestrial infection cycles are likely to overlap. This was supported by the fact that B. garinii isolated from seabirds can establish a long-term infection in mice. Bacteria from the genospecies B. garinii are overrepresented among neuroborreliosis patients. Interestingly, many clinical B. garinii isolates are sensitive to human serum and have shown weak binding to the complement inhibitor protein factor H. By transforming a serum-sensitive B. garinii isolate with a shuttle vector containing the gene for the factor H binding protein OspE from complement-resistant B. burgdorferi, serum resistance could be increased. In addition, neurovirulent B. garinii strains recently isolated from neuroborreliosis patients were shown to express a factor H binding protein, not found in bacteria that had been kept in culture for a long time. This protein may contribute to the virulence of neuroborreliosis-causing B. garinii strains. When testing B. garinii isolates from Lyme borreliosis patients and seabirds for resistance to human serum, all members of the latter group were sensitive to even low levels of serum. This suggests that seabird isolates are not capable of infecting humans. In agreement with this, B. garinii isolated from seabirds do not appear to bind human factor H.

Les microorganismes du domaine du vivant Archaea sont très divers sur le plan biologique et sont présents dans de nombreux types d'écosystèmes. Ils sont majoritaires dans les environnements dits extrêmes. Parmi les virus d'archées, ceux infectant les espèces d'un phylum majeur des archées, Crenarchaeota, constitué d'hyperthermophiles, forment un groupe exceptionnel. En effet, leurs morphotypes sont uniques, variés, et complexes. Le contenu de leur génome est également unique. Enfin, la plupart de ces virus se maintiennent dans la cellule hôte en état porteur, une relation chronique qui permet un équilibre entre production de virions et division cellulaire. J'ai d'abord démontré que le virus de crenarchée Sulfolobus islandicus rod-shaped virus 2 est un virus virulent, et non chronique comme il avait été suggéré. Un mécanisme de lyse unique a été découvert. La paroi cellulaire est modifiée en plusieurs points, avec l'apparition de structures pyramidales saillantes. Celles-ci s'ouvrent en fin de cycle infectieux, permettant aux virions, assemblés auparavant dans le cytoplasme, de quitter la cellule. Puis j'ai travaillé sur des échantillons de sources géothermiques de la péninsule de Kamchatka (Russie) et contribué à l'isolement et la caractérisation d'un virus de morphotype filamenteux. Des protéines structurales supplémentaires ont ainsi été identifiées. Enfin, des mots courts exceptionnels ont été identifiés dans un grand nombre de génomes d'archées et de leurs éléments extra-chromosomiques. Ce sont potentiellement des motifs fonctionnels non-codants, impliqués dans des mécanismes biologiques importants. Typiquement, les motifs palindromiques sont évités dans les génomes / The microorganisms from the Archaea domain are very diverse at the biological level and they are present in many types of ecosystems. They are dominant in the so-called extreme environments. Among their viruses, those infecting species of the Crenarchaeota phylum, a major archaeal phylum comprising hyperthermophiles, form an exceptional group. Indeed, their morphotypes are unique, diverse, and complex. Their genome content is also unique. Finally, most of these viruses persist in the host cell in a carrier state, a chronic relationship allowing an equilibrium between virion production and cell division. I first proved that Sulfolobus islandicus rod-shaped virus 2 is a virulent virus, and not chronic, as had previously been suggested. A unique lysis mechanism was discovered. The cell wall is modified in several locations, with the appearance of pyramidal prominent structures. Those burst open at the end of the infection cycle, allowing the virions, previously assembled in the cytoplasm, to leave the cell. Then, I worked on environmental samples from geothermal springs of the Kamchatka peninsula (Russia) and contributed to the isolation and characterization of a virus of filamentous morphotype. Additional structural proteins were in particular identified. Finally, short exceptional words were identified in a great number of genomes from archaea and their extra-chromosomal elements. These are potentially functional non-coding motifs involved in important biological mechanisms. Typically, palindromic motifs are avoided in the genomes

Baculoviruses are lytic insect viruses. Upon internalisation, the viral genome orchestrates a sequential expression process ultimately leading to lysis of the infected cell. Release of progeny capable of infecting other cells during the process completes the infection cycle. Studies of the infection cycle in cell culture are typically conducted by synchronous infection, i.e. near simultaneous infection of all cells, by means of high virus concentrations. The behaviour of the synchronously infected culture, such as the timing of onset of progeny release, is considered representative for the infection progression within individual cells. In reality, however, the synchronously infected culture only reflects the average behaviour of all infected cells. The infection progresses in individual cells display large variability; this is most obvious in the observation that within the same culture some cells undergo cell lysis at two days post infection while others remain viable up to four days post infection. Such variabilities or asynchronies observed in synchronously infected culture is the topic of this thesis. Using a simple phenomenological model, it is demonstrated that cell death and associated intracellular product release is adequately described assuming that the waiting time from infection to cell death follows a Gaussian distribution with a mean of 59 hours post infection (hpi) and a standard deviation of 15hpi. Unlike other deterministic models developed over the last decade (Licari and Bailey 1992; Nielsen 2000), this stochastic model does not make the biologically inconsistent assumption that cells continue to be metabolically active following loss of membrane integrity. While elegant in its simplicity, the model provides no explanation for the underlying stochasticity. Investigations into the cause of this dispersion of cell death highlighted further asynchronies in the specific recombinant protein yield, in viral DNA content, in virus budding rate, and in cell volume increase instead of clarifying the issue. A modelling framework developed by Licari & Bailey (1992) and later Hu & Bentley (2000) incorporates the number of infectious particles each individual cell receives as a possible source of the dispersions in the host cell responses. However, this was found NOT to be the cause of the observed asynchronies under non-substrate limiting conditions. The timing of cell death, cell volume increase, recombinant product yield, viral DNA content, and virus budding rate is identical in Sf9 cell cultures infected at multiplicities of infection of ~5, ~15, and ~45 infectious particles per cell. Cell cycle variation has previously been suggested as a possible cause for observed asynchronies in baculovirus infections (Brown and Faulkner, 1975). The cell cycle phase is indirectly linked to the cell volume, because a G_2-phase cell prior to division is inherently twice the cell volume of a G_1- phase cell after cell division. By the same logic, it is also apparent that a G_2-phase cell possesses twice the number of ribosomes of a G_1-phase cell and thus a doubled protein production capacity. The effect of the cell cycle or cell volume on the baculovirus infection was determined by splitting an exponentially growing Sf9 cell culture into 5 cell size dependent fractions by centrifugal elutriation. The subsequent infection of these fractions showed (1) no dependency of the timing of cell lysis and cell volume increase and (2) approximately twofold increase of a) recombinant protein yield, b) viral DNA concentration, and c) budded virus yield. The recombinant protein yield showed a strong proportionality to the initial cell volume and the total RNA concentration during the late phase of the infection. As argued in chapter 6, these proportionalities suggest that the observed differences in the responses of the cell fractions to the baculovirus infection are more likely caused by the difference in the protein production capacity than by cell cycle specific molecules. This investigation gave also reason to speculate that infected cells cannot progress beyond the G_2/M phase, and cell cycle progression continues undisturbed until ~8hpi when all cellular DNA replication appears to cease. Resuspended, infected Sf9 cells synchronised by centrifugal elutriation showed an identical cell cycle distribution as the non-infected control cultures for the first ~8hpi; G_1 and G_2/M phase cell proportions remained unchanged, whereas S phase cells progress to G_2/M phase. Subsequently, the non-infected control cells resumed normal cycling whereas all infected cells remained at the same cell cycle phase from 8 to 11hpi. The initial cell cycle arrests in G_2/M phase in both infected and non-infected cultures were caused through medium exchange.