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The spread of bluetongue virus (BTV) to previously disease-free regions which prohibit the use of the current BTV live-attenuated vaccine has highlighted the need for a new generation of vaccines (Ferrari, De Liberato et al. 2005; Veronesi, Hamblin et al. 2005). Subunit vaccines are one of the attractive alternative strategies. Subunit vaccines against BTV would target the outercapsid protein VP2, the main neutralization-specific antigen (Huismans, van der Walt et al. 1987; Roy, Urakawa et al. 1990; Roy, French et al. 1992; Roy, Bishop et al. 1994). A subunit vaccine based on the use of BTV-VP2 may be achieved by either using VP2 by itself or by means of virus-like particles (VLPs) on which VP2 proteins are exposed. In VLPs, the VP2 is co-expressed with other capsid and core proteins to form a particle that resembles the intact BTV. The BTV-VLP vaccine strategy is advantageous since it presents the neutralizing epitopes of more than one viral protein in a more authentic manner as found on the virus itself (Huismans, van der Walt et al. 1987; Roy, Urakawa et al. 1990; Roy, French et al. 1992; Roy, Bishop et al. 1994). However there are difficulties associated with large scale production and a decrease in the stability of the particles over time (Berg, Difatta et al. 2005; Wang, Zhao et al. 2006). Studies have already demonstrated the vaccine potential of BTVVP2 by itself (Huismans, van der Walt et al. 1987; Roy, Urakawa et al. 1990; Roy, French et al. 1992; Roy, Bishop et al. 1994). However if BTV-VP2 is to be used by itself as a single subunit vaccine, it is important that the protein is expressed under conditions where it is correctly folded and soluble. Solubility refers to the capacity of the expressed antigen to fold into an ordered tertiary structure that authentically exposes the neutralizing epitopes to the immune system (Dinner, Sali et al. 2000; Dobson 2003). However non-native interactions within and between in vitro synthesized viral proteins such as BTV-VP2 often leads to protein aggregation or insolubility. The immune response against aggregated or insoluble proteins is generally very poor. This problem of aggregation and insolubility may be alleviated to an extent by generating truncated versions of the protein from which hydrophobic regions that promote aggregation have been deleted leaving only the major neutralizing epitopes of the antigen (Fukumoto, Xuan et al. 2003; Bonafe, Rininger et al. 2009; Liu, Zeng et al. 2009; Seo, Pyo et al. 2009). The focus of the research presented in this dissertation was to evaluate the solubility of full-length BTV(10)-VP2 and truncated versions thereof after expression in a prokaryotic and baculovirus-Sf9 expression system. The full-length BTV(10)-VP2 (956 amino acids) gene and genes encoding truncated versions of BTV(10)-VP2 i.e. BTV(10)-VP2(aa450) (amino acid 1 to 450) and BTV(10)- VP2(aa650) (amino acid 1 to 650) were cloned into the bacterial expression vector pET160-DEST and the baculovirus expression vector pDEST™8. The C-terminal hydrophobic regions which might contribute to aggregation or insolubility of the protein when expressed in vitro were deleted from these truncated BTV(10)-VP2 proteins. The truncated proteins however still contained BTV neutralizing epitopes that were predicted from literature. The prokaryotic expression of the full-length BTV(10)-VP2 and the other truncated recombinant BTV(10)-VP2 proteins was carried out in E. coli BL21 Star DE3 expression strain. The initial pilot expression study confirmed high level expression of the recombinant proteins. The study also revealed that these proteins were insoluble. The optimization of the prokaryotic expression in order to increase the yield of soluble proteins by means of differential inducer concentrations, fermentation temperature and harvesting times did not produce soluble BTV(10)-VP2 and truncated BTV(10)-VP2 proteins. Previous studies have demonstrated the role of L-arginine in the recovery of soluble proteins from aggregation by reversing aggregation (Tsumoto, Umetsu et al. 2003). However in the current study, arginine treatment of the inclusion body and bacterial lysate containing the BTV(10)- VP2 and truncated recombinant proteins did not release soluble proteins. No soluble recombinant BTV(10)-VP2 proteins were detected when the recombinant proteins were expressed in BL21 host cells over-expressing heat-shock proteins (hsps) and chemical chaperones. However when the different recombinant proteins were co-expressed with the molecular chaperones dnaK-dnaJ-GrpE, it resulted in a fraction of soluble recombinant BTV(10)-VP2 proteins. In particular, approximately 50% of the total expressed BTV(10)-VP2(aa450) protein was soluble while approximately 20% of the total expressed BTV(10)-VP2(aa650) and full-length BTV(10)-VP2 were found soluble when coexpressed with dnaK-dnaJ-GrpE chaperones. These recombinant proteins could be eluted from a nickel affinity column further confirming that these proteins are in fact soluble. Interestingly the coexpression of the BTV(10)-VP2(aa450) protein with the above chaperones in combination with chaperones groEL-groES or only groEL-groES did not produce any soluble proteins. Baculovirus-insect expression of the aforementioned BTV(10)-VP2 recombinant proteins was carried out in Spodoptera frugiperda 9 (Sf9) cells. High level expression of the recombinant proteins was confirmed by an initial pilot expression study conducted at 42 hours post infection (p.i.). The pilot study also revealed that the recombinant proteins were insoluble. Arginine treatment of the lysate released a small fraction of soluble BTV(10)-VP2(aa450) and BTV(10)-VP2(ORF) proteins only detectable with immunoblot analysis using the anti-BTV(10) IgY antibodies. The amount of solubilized proteins was however too small to justify the cost associated with this expression system. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Genetics / unrestricted

Comparadas com células de mamífero, as células de inseto são mais fáceis de cultivar, não acumulam quantidade significativa de sub-produtos tóxicos e apresentam maiores rendimentos na expressão de proteínas heterólogas, porém apresentam uma menor capacidade de realizar modificações pós-traducionais. Células de inseto podem ser empregadas na produção in vitro de baculovírus, usados como pesticidas biológicos. As células Sf-9 estão entre as células de inseto com uso mais difundido. Entender o metabolismo destas células permitirá melhorias nos processos que as empregam, entretanto, ainda há relativamente pouca informação sobre o assunto. Considerando mais especificamente o uso dessas células para produção de baculovírus, também é necessário mais entendimento sobre o processo infectivo e parâmetros que o afetam. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a influência da suplementação do meio de cultivo com diferentes aminoácidos no desenvolvimento das células Sf-9 e determinar a concentração de oxigênio dissolvido ideal para o cultivo destas células, visando elaborar uma metodologia de cultivo em biorreator otimizada e, paralelamente, estudar o processo de infecção de cultivos dessas células com o baculovírus Spodoptera frugiperda (SfMNPV) em diferentes escalas. Para estudar a influência que a adição de aminoácidos ao meio tem sobre o crescimento celular, células Sf-9 foram cultivadas em frascos schotts de 100 e 500 mL, com 20 mL do meio SF900III SFM (serum free medium) suplementados com cisteína, prolina, serina ou asparagina. Os resultados foram comparados com cultivos feitos sem suplementação (controles). A condição que apresentou o melhor resultado em frasco schott foi replicada em biorreator de 1 L de volume útil. Para estudar a influência do oxigênio dissolvido (O.D.) foram testados diferentes setpoints de O.D. em cultivos em biorreator. Em tais ensaios foram testadas as concentrações de O.D de 10%, 30% e 50% da saturação com o ar. Para o estudo do processo de infecção, foram realizadas infecções em frascos schotts de 500 mL, com 20 mL de cultivo, e em biorreator de 1 L. Também foram realizadas infecções em garrafas T-25 como forma de controle de virulência do inóculo viral e do vírus produzido. As principais variáveis analisadas foram µmáx, Xvmáx YX/Glc. Nos ensaios de influencia de O.D., analisou-se também qO2 e qCO2 e, nos ensaios de infecção, a porcentagem de células contendo poliedros. A suplementação com prolina foi prejudicial ao cultivo. A adição de asparagina não teve qualquer influência no desenvolvimento celular. Os resultados das adições de cisteína e serina não foram muito conclusivos, em alguns ensaios houve aumento de Xvmáx, já em outros não foi notado efeito significativo. Nos ensaios em biorreator, todos os valores de O.D. testados apresentaram resultados semelhantes, já a adição de cisteína ao meio em biorreator foi bastante maléfica ao crescimento celular. Os ensaios de infecção mostraram que células Sf-9 são bastante susceptíveis à infecção pelo baculovírus Spodoptera frugiperda e boas produtoras de poliedros virais, e que a vazão gasosa tem efeito negativo na concentração viral na fase líquida dos cultivos em biorreator (título viral). / Compared to mammalian cells, insect cells are easier to culture, do not accumulate significant amounts of toxic byproducts and are capable of higher heterologous protein yields, but have a lower ability to perform post-translational modifications. Insect cells may be employed in the in vitro production of baculoviruses, used as biological pesticides. Sf-9 cells are among the most used insect cell lines. Understanding the metabolism of these cells would allow improvements in the processes that employ them, however, Howeverreports on the metabolism and physiology of Sf-9 cells and insect cells in general are scarce. When considering the use of these cells for baculovirus production, it is also necessary more understanding about the infective process and parameters that can affect it. This work aimed to study the influence that the supplementation of the culture medium with different amino acids have on the development of Sf-9 cells and to determine the ideal dissolved oxygen concentration for the culture of these cells, aiming to elaborate an optimized bioreactor culture methodology and, in parallel, to study the infection process of these cells with the Spodoptera frugiperda baculovirus (SfMNPV) at different scales. To study the influence that the addition of amino acids to the medium has on cell growth, Sf-9 cells were cultured in 100 and 500mL schott flasks with 20mL SF900III SFM (serum free medium) supplemented with cysteine, proline, serine or asparagine. The results were compared with cultures without supplementation (controls). The condition that presented the best result in schott flasks was replicated in a 1L bioreactor. To study the influence of dissolved oxygen (O.D.), experiments with different values of O.D. were conducted at a 1L bioreactor. The O.D. tested were 10%, 30% and 50% of air saturation. To study the infection process, infections were carried out in 500 mL schotted flasks, with 20 mL of culture, and in a 1L bioreactor. Infections were also carried out in 25 cm² T-flasks as a form of virulence control of the viral inoculum and virus produced. The main variables analyzed were µmax, Xvmax YX/Glc. In the O.D. tests, qO2 and qCO2 were also analyzed and, in the infection assays, the percentage of cells containing polyhedra. Proline supplementation was detrimental to the culture. The addition of asparagine had no influence on cellular growth. The results of cysteine and serine additions were not very conclusive, in some studies there was an increase of Xvmax, while in others no significant effect was observed. In the bioreactor trials, all O.D. tested showed similar results and the addition of cysteine to the medium was quite harmful to cell growth. Infection assays showed that Sf-9 cells are quite susceptible to infection by the Spodoptera frugiperda baculovirus and good producers of viral polyhedra, and that the gas flow has a negative effect on the viral concentration in the liquid phase of the bioreactor cultures (viral titer).

Οι νικοτινικοί υποδοχείς ακετυλοχολίνης (nAChR) αποτελούν πρότυπα μέλη της υπεροικογένειας των πενταμερών χημειοελεγχόμενων διαύλων ιόντων. Εμπλέκονται τόσο σε πολλές φυσιολογικές λειτουργίες του οργανισμού, όσο και σε πολλές νόσους προσελκύοντας μεγάλο ερευνητικό ενδιαφέρον. Οι nAChR διακρίνονται κυρίως σε νευρικού και μυϊκού τύπου. Ο νευρικός α4β2 nAChR έχει εκφραστεί και μελετηθεί με τεχνικές όπως πρόσδεση αγωνιστών-ανταγωνιστών και ηλεκτροφυσιολογικές αναλύσεις. Όμως δομικές μελέτες υψηλής ανάλυσης όπως η κρυσταλλογραφία ακτινών-Χ, πάνω σε αυτόν τον υποδοχέα δεν έχουν ακόμα αναφερθεί και πιθανή αιτία γι’ αυτό μπορεί να είναι και η ευέλικτη διαμόρφωση της κυτταροπλασματικής θηλιάς μεταξύ των διαμεμβρανικών ελίκων Μ3 και Μ4, η οποία μπορεί να εμποδίζει την ευαίσθητη από τη φύση της διαδικασία της κρυστάλλωσης των μεμβρανικών πρωτεϊνών. Στην παρούσα μελέτη ο ανθρώπινος α4β2 nAChR εκφράστηκε τόσο σε κύτταρα εντόμων Sf9 με τη βοήθεια βακιλοϊού, όσο και σε ζυμομύκητες P. pastoris, σε δυο μορφές: Τον άγριου τύπου υποδοχέα (ΑΤ) και μια μορφή χωρίς κυτταροπλασματική θηλιά (Κ). Στόχος της παρούσης μελέτης, ήταν η έκφραση ενός τύπου α4β2 nAChR με την καλύτερη δυνατή ποιότητα δομής και τα υψηλότερα δυνατά επίπεδα έκφρασης, ο οποίος θα ήταν κατάλληλος να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε δομικές μελέτες υψηλής ανάλυση όπως η κρυσταλλογραφία ακτινών-Χ. Αρχικά κατασκευάστηκαν ανασυνδυασμένοι βακιλοϊοί με τα cDNA των υπομονάδων των ΑΤ και Κ α4β2 υποδοχέων, οι οποίοι χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για να μολύνουν κύτταρα εντόμων Sf9 αναγκάζοντάς τα να εκφράσουν τους υποδοχείς. Οι υπομονάδες των ΑΤ και Κ υποδοχέων ανιχνεύτηκαν εκφρασμένες σε κύτταρα εντόμων με στύπωμα western σε αναμενόμενα μοριακά βάρη, ενώ με πρόσδεση 125Ι-επιβατιδίνης αποδείχθηκε ότι οι α4 και οι β2 υπομονάδες είχαν ενωθεί μεταξύ τους μετά την έκφρασή τους και είχαν συγκροτήσει λειτουργικούς θύλακες πρόσδεσης ακετυλοχολίνης. Ο βέλτιστος χρόνος έκφρασης των υποδοχέων βρέθηκε να είναι τα 3 24ωρα, ενώ οι ιδανικές αναλογίες α4 προς β2 βακιλοϊών βρέθηκαν να είναι οι: 1:1 και 1:3. Η προσθήκη νικοτίνης στο θρεπτικό δεν βρέθηκε να έχει κάποια μετρήσιμη επίπτωση στην έκφραση ούτε του ΑΤ ούτε και του Κ υποδοχέα. Πειράματα πρόσδεσης 3Η-επιβατιδίνης έδειξαν τη συγγένειά της με τον ΑΤ υποδοχέα να είναι 2 φορές υψηλότερη σε σχέση με τον Κ, ενώ στα ίδια πειράματα βρέθηκε ότι τα επίπεδα έκφρασης του Κ υποδοχέα ήταν 7 φορές υψηλότερα από αυτά του ΑΤ. Πειράματα πρόσδεσης μη επισημασμένων προσδετών έδωσαν συγγένειες επίσης δυο φορές υψηλότερες για τον ΑΤ υποδοχέα σε σχέση με τον Κ. Επιπλέον πειράματα διαλυτοποίησης έδειξαν ότι οι βέλτιστες συνθήκες για την διαλυτοποίηση των υποδοχέων ήταν οι 25 oC και η χρήση του απορρυπαντικού Triton X-100. Στην ίδια σειρά πειραμάτων ο Κ υποδοχέας βρέθηκε να διαλυτοποιείται 4 φορές πιο αποδοτικά σε σχέση με τον ΑΤ. Τα πειράματα απομόνωσης και καθαρισμού συνεχίστηκαν μόνο με τον Κ υποδοχέα, λόγω καλύτερης διαλυτοποίησης και πολύ υψηλότερων επιπέδων έκφρασης που παρουσίαζε σε σχέση με τον ΑΤ. Ο Κ α4β2 υποδοχέας απομονώθηκε και καθαρίστηκε αρχικά με χρωματογραφία συγγένειας ιόντων νικελίου και στη συνέχεια με χρωματογραφία μοριακού αποκλεισμού, η οποία έδειξε ότι ο Κ υποδοχέας είχε εκλουστεί σε όγκο έκλουσης συμβατό με το αναμενόμενο ΜΒ. Το γεγονός αυτό, μαζί με το γεγονός της πρόσδεσης επιβατιδίνης και άλλων προσδετών, πιστοποίησαν ότι οι ταυτόχρονα εκφραζόμενες α4 και β2 υπομονάδες συγκρότησαν υποδοχείς. Η ανάλυση του καθαρισμένου Κ α4β2 υποδοχέα με SDS PAGE και στύπωμα western έδειξε ότι ο υποδοχέας είχε απομονωθεί και καθαριστεί σε ικανοποιητικό βαθμό. Η έκφραση των ΑΤ και Κ υποδοχέων στο στέλεχος GS 115 του ζυμομύκητα P. pastoris δεν ήταν το ίδιο επιτυχημένη με την αντίστοιχη έκφραση σε κύτταρα εντόμων. Οι υπομονάδες των υποδοχέων δεν ανιχνεύτηκαν στην ανάλυση με στύπωμα western, ενώ η ανάλυση με δέσμευση 3Η-επιβατιδίνης έδειξε ότι εκφράστηκαν σε επίπεδα πολύ χαμηλότερα σε σχέση με αυτά των κυττάρων εντόμων. Τέλος τα ποσοστά διαλυτοποίησης που επιτυγχάνονταν με τον ζυμομύκητα P. pastoris ήταν επίσης πολύ χαμηλότερα από τα αντίστοιχα των κυττάρων εντόμων, οπότε η μελέτη δεν προχώρησε περεταίρω με αυτό το σύστημα έκφρασης. Συμπερασματικά μέσα από την παρούσα μελέτη, προέκυψε ένας ανθρώπινος νευρικός α4β2 nAChR χωρίς κυτταροπλασματική θηλιά, εκφρασμένος σε κύτταρα εντόμων με τη βοήθεια βακιλοϊού, ο οποίος εκφράζεται και διαλυτοποιείται πολύ περισσότερο από τον φυσικό υποδοχέα και επιπλέον μπορεί να απομονωθεί και να καθαριστεί σχετικά εύκολα. Η απουσία της εύκαμπτης κυτταροπλασματικής θηλιάς αναμένεται να διευκολύνει τον σχηματισμό κρυστάλλων του υποδοχέα στα πειράματα κρυστάλλωσης, τα οποία έχουν ήδη ξεκινήσει, καθώς και την ανάλυση των δεδομένων εφόσον προκύψουν πρωτεϊνικοί κρύσταλλοι. Τέλος οι διαφορές που παρατηρήθηκαν στην έκφραση ΑΤ και Κ α4β2 nAChR μεταξύ κυττάρων εντόμων και ζυμομύκητα P. pastoris, ελέγχθηκαν εκφράζοντας στα συστήματα αυτά μια μικρότερη, συγγενική πρωτεΐνη, η οποία αποτελείτο μόνο από το ECD της α1 υπομονάδας του ανθρώπινου μυϊκού τύπου nAChR. Το εκφρασμένο σε κύτταρα εντόμων α1-ECD (i-α1-ECD) βρέθηκε να έχει μεγαλύτερη ικανότητα δέσμευσης αντι-nAChR αυτοαντισωμάτων από τον ορό μυασθενών σε σχέση με το εκφρασμένο σε ζυμομύκητα P. pastoris (y-α1-ECD), καθώς επίσης μεγαλύτερη ικανότητα δέσμευσης αντι-nAChR mAb, αποτελέσματα τα οποία μαζί με αντίστοιχα του κυκλικού διχρωϊσμού έδειξαν βελτιωμένη δομή, επιβεβαιώνοντας ότι τα κύτταρα εντόμων εκφράζουν καλύτερα nAChR σε σχέση με το ζυμομύκητα P. pastoris. Επιπλέον αποδείχθηκε ότι το i-α1-ECD είναι καταλληλότερο τόσο για δομικές μελέτες όσο και για βελτιωμένες θεραπείες της βαριάς μυασθένειας. / Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are models for the superfamily of pentameric ligand gated ion channels. They are involved both in many physiological functions and in many diseases, attracting major scientific interest. nAChRs are distinguished in muscle and neuronal type. Neuronal α4β2 nAChRs have been expressed and studied using ligand binding and electrophysiology technics. Nevertheless high resolution structural studies like X-ray crystallography have not yet been referred, and one main reason for that may be the flexible conformation of the cytoplasmic loop between the transmembrane helixes M3 and M4, which is very likely to prevent the membrane protein crystallization process. In the present study the wild type (WT) human α4β2 nAChR and a truncated construct (T), that lacked the cytoplasmic loop, were expressed both in Sf9 insect cells using baculovirus and in the yeast Pichia pastoris. The aim of the present study was the expression and purification of a human α4β2 nAChR type receptor, suitable for use in high resolution structure analysis, and especially in X-ray crystallography. Recombinant baculoviruses were constructed, containing the α4β2 nAChR subunits cDNAs. They were used to infect Sf9 insect cells, made them to coexpress the WT or T α4 and β2 subunits. WT and T receptor subunits were detected expressed in the expected molecular weights, while 125Ι-epibatidine binding proved that α4 and β2 subunits had formed ligand binding sites. The best expression time was found to be 72 hours post infection and the best α4/β2 recombinant baculovirus ratios were found to be between 1:1 and 1:3. Nicotine addition to the medium did not make any difference in the expression levels. 3Η-epibatidine binding studies showed 2 times stronger affinity for the WT than the T receptor and 7 times higher expression levels for the T than the WT receptor. Non labeled ligand binding studies showed also 2 times stronger affinity for the WT than the T nAChR. Other experiments indicated that 25 oC and the Triton X-100 detergent were the best combination for the receptor’s solubilization. Other solubilization experiments showed T nAChR solubilized 4 times better than the WT. Purification experiments continued only for T construct due to its higher expression levels and better solubilization efficiency. T α4β2 receptor was originally purified using ion metal affinity chromatography and subsequently gel filtration chromatography, which showed that T receptor has elution volume compatible with the expected MW. This result together with the receptors’ ligand binding capabilities certified that the coexpressed α4 and β2 subunits formed oligomeric receptors. SDS PAGE and western blot analysis indicated that T nAChR was satisfactory purified. The expression of the WT and T receptors in the strain GS 115 of the yeast P. pastoris was not as successful as the expression in insect cells. Receptor subunits were not detected using western blot analysis, whereas 3Η-epibatidine binding studies indicated expression levels much lower than that of insect cells. Finally, solubilization of the yeast expressed WT and T α4β2 nAChRs was very poor compared with that of insect cells. Due to all the above results, the yeast expression of the WT and T nAChRswas discontinued. In conclusion, by the present study, a new human α4β2 nAChR without cytoplasmic loop was emerged, expressed in sf9 insect cells using baculovirus, with much higher expression levels and solubilization yields than that of the natural receptor and capable for easy purification. The absence of the unordered cytoplasmic loop is expected to facilitate the crystal formation and the analysis of any protein crystals might derive from the crystallization efforts which have been already started. Finally, the differences of the expressed WT and T α4β2 nAChRs between insect cells and the yeast P. pastoris were further confirmed by expressing a small, related protein, the ECD of the α1 subunit of human muscle nAChR in both systems and comparing the two expressed α1 ECDs. The insect expressed α1 ECD (i-α1-ECD) was found to have higher immunoadsorption capacity for anti-nAChR autoantibodies from myasthenia patients sera than the yeast expressed (y-α1-ECD) and also higher binding ability for anti-nAChR mAbs. These results together with circular dichroism results showed a more native-like structure for the i-α1-ECD, confirming that insect cells express better nAChRs comparing to the yeast P. pastoris. Furthermore it was proved that i-α1-ECD was a better candidate for structural studies and more suitable for selective myasthenia gravis therapies.

Comparadas com células de mamífero, as células de inseto são mais fáceis de cultivar, não acumulam quantidade significativa de sub-produtos tóxicos e apresentam maiores rendimentos na expressão de proteínas heterólogas, porém apresentam uma menor capacidade de realizar modificações pós-traducionais. Células de inseto podem ser empregadas na produção in vitro de baculovírus, usados como pesticidas biológicos. As células Sf-9 estão entre as células de inseto com uso mais difundido. Entender o metabolismo destas células permitirá melhorias nos processos que as empregam, entretanto, ainda há relativamente pouca informação sobre o assunto. Considerando mais especificamente o uso dessas células para produção de baculovírus, também é necessário mais entendimento sobre o processo infectivo e parâmetros que o afetam. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a influência da suplementação do meio de cultivo com diferentes aminoácidos no desenvolvimento das células Sf-9 e determinar a concentração de oxigênio dissolvido ideal para o cultivo destas células, visando elaborar uma metodologia de cultivo em biorreator otimizada e, paralelamente, estudar o processo de infecção de cultivos dessas células com o baculovírus Spodoptera frugiperda (SfMNPV) em diferentes escalas. Para estudar a influência que a adição de aminoácidos ao meio tem sobre o crescimento celular, células Sf-9 foram cultivadas em frascos schotts de 100 e 500 mL, com 20 mL do meio SF900III SFM (serum free medium) suplementados com cisteína, prolina, serina ou asparagina. Os resultados foram comparados com cultivos feitos sem suplementação (controles). A condição que apresentou o melhor resultado em frasco schott foi replicada em biorreator de 1 L de volume útil. Para estudar a influência do oxigênio dissolvido (O.D.) foram testados diferentes setpoints de O.D. em cultivos em biorreator. Em tais ensaios foram testadas as concentrações de O.D de 10%, 30% e 50% da saturação com o ar. Para o estudo do processo de infecção, foram realizadas infecções em frascos schotts de 500 mL, com 20 mL de cultivo, e em biorreator de 1 L. Também foram realizadas infecções em garrafas T-25 como forma de controle de virulência do inóculo viral e do vírus produzido. As principais variáveis analisadas foram µmáx, Xvmáx YX/Glc. Nos ensaios de influencia de O.D., analisou-se também qO2 e qCO2 e, nos ensaios de infecção, a porcentagem de células contendo poliedros. A suplementação com prolina foi prejudicial ao cultivo. A adição de asparagina não teve qualquer influência no desenvolvimento celular. Os resultados das adições de cisteína e serina não foram muito conclusivos, em alguns ensaios houve aumento de Xvmáx, já em outros não foi notado efeito significativo. Nos ensaios em biorreator, todos os valores de O.D. testados apresentaram resultados semelhantes, já a adição de cisteína ao meio em biorreator foi bastante maléfica ao crescimento celular. Os ensaios de infecção mostraram que células Sf-9 são bastante susceptíveis à infecção pelo baculovírus Spodoptera frugiperda e boas produtoras de poliedros virais, e que a vazão gasosa tem efeito negativo na concentração viral na fase líquida dos cultivos em biorreator (título viral). / Compared to mammalian cells, insect cells are easier to culture, do not accumulate significant amounts of toxic byproducts and are capable of higher heterologous protein yields, but have a lower ability to perform post-translational modifications. Insect cells may be employed in the in vitro production of baculoviruses, used as biological pesticides. Sf-9 cells are among the most used insect cell lines. Understanding the metabolism of these cells would allow improvements in the processes that employ them, however, Howeverreports on the metabolism and physiology of Sf-9 cells and insect cells in general are scarce. When considering the use of these cells for baculovirus production, it is also necessary more understanding about the infective process and parameters that can affect it. This work aimed to study the influence that the supplementation of the culture medium with different amino acids have on the development of Sf-9 cells and to determine the ideal dissolved oxygen concentration for the culture of these cells, aiming to elaborate an optimized bioreactor culture methodology and, in parallel, to study the infection process of these cells with the Spodoptera frugiperda baculovirus (SfMNPV) at different scales. To study the influence that the addition of amino acids to the medium has on cell growth, Sf-9 cells were cultured in 100 and 500mL schott flasks with 20mL SF900III SFM (serum free medium) supplemented with cysteine, proline, serine or asparagine. The results were compared with cultures without supplementation (controls). The condition that presented the best result in schott flasks was replicated in a 1L bioreactor. To study the influence of dissolved oxygen (O.D.), experiments with different values of O.D. were conducted at a 1L bioreactor. The O.D. tested were 10%, 30% and 50% of air saturation. To study the infection process, infections were carried out in 500 mL schotted flasks, with 20 mL of culture, and in a 1L bioreactor. Infections were also carried out in 25 cm² T-flasks as a form of virulence control of the viral inoculum and virus produced. The main variables analyzed were µmax, Xvmax YX/Glc. In the O.D. tests, qO2 and qCO2 were also analyzed and, in the infection assays, the percentage of cells containing polyhedra. Proline supplementation was detrimental to the culture. The addition of asparagine had no influence on cellular growth. The results of cysteine and serine additions were not very conclusive, in some studies there was an increase of Xvmax, while in others no significant effect was observed. In the bioreactor trials, all O.D. tested showed similar results and the addition of cysteine to the medium was quite harmful to cell growth. Infection assays showed that Sf-9 cells are quite susceptible to infection by the Spodoptera frugiperda baculovirus and good producers of viral polyhedra, and that the gas flow has a negative effect on the viral concentration in the liquid phase of the bioreactor cultures (viral titer).

Traditional methods of pest control are threatened by the development of insecticide resistance, both to traditional insecticides and Bt toxins. Discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) has created opportunities to develop new insect control mechanisms. However, RNAi responses appear to be robust in coleopteran pests, but other orders, e.g. Lepidoptera and Hemiptera, present varied or ineffective RNAi responses. Current delivery strategies for double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) include microinjection, ingestion, and soaking. These approaches have benefits and problems. This study investigates the potential for porous silica nanoparticles (pSNPs) to improve the delivery of dsRNA and induce an RNAi response in Spodoptera frugiperda cells. Initially, the binding conditions of RNA onto porous and nonporous silica nanoparticles was examined, and the movement of RNA on and within pSNPs was observed. That information was then applied to in vitro studies for examining the capacity of silica nanoparticles to protect dsRNA from degradation by nucleases. This work culminated in an in vivo assay for measuring apoptosis when dsRNA is delivered to insect cells by pSNPs. Results of these studies show that silica nanoparticles bind nucleic acids and that dsRNA is mobile, pSNPs protect dsRNA from nuclease degradation, and pSNP/dsRNA complexes can induce apoptosis in lepidopteran insect cells.

A velocidade específica de respiração (QO2) é um parâmetro fundamental para entender-se o metabolismo e o estado fisiológico celular, fornecendo informações úteis para o processo e controle em biorreatores. Neste trabalho, cultivou-se diferentes células de insetos em ambiente controlado medindo-se o QO2 e concentração crítica de oxigênio (Ccrít). Foram utilizadas nos ensaios células de insetos Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) não infectadas e células de Drosophila melanogaster (S2) selvagem e recombinantes, utilizadas na expressão de diferentes proteínas. Todas as experiências foram realizadas em biorreator Inceltech com volume de trabalho de 1L, mantido a temperatura de 28ºC, agitação de 100 rpm e oxigênio dissolvido (OD) a 40% da saturação de ar, com difusão por membrana de silicone com mistura gasosa (O2 e N2) e vazão gasosa constante. Foi utilizado meio de cultura Sf900II sem soro fetal bovino. O QO2 foi medido pelo método dinâmico e pelo balanço de oxigênio na fase líquida. Neste trabalho foi implementado um novo processo durante o método dinâmico para interromper completamente a transferência gasosa durante a execução deste método. Implementou-se também uma metodologia para medição de Ccrít. Chegou-se a concentrações máximas celulares (Xm), velocidades máximas específicas de respiração (QO2) na fase exponencial e Ccrít, conforme segue: 1) Sf9 (ATCC 1711): Xm - 10,7.106 cel/mL; QO2 - 74,7.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); 2) S2 (Invitrogen): Xm - 51,2.106 cel/mL; QO2 - 3,4.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); Ccrít - 10%; 3) S2AcGPV2 (transfectadas para expressão de GPV): Xm - 26,6.106 cel/mL; QO2 -16,0.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); Ccrít - 10%; 4) S2MtEGFP (transfectadas para expressão de EGFP): Xm - 17,8.106 cel/mL; QO2 - 25,8.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); Ccrít - 5%; 5) S2AcHBsAgHy (transfectadas para expressão de HBsAg): Xm - 16,6.106 cel/mL; QO2 -33,6.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); Ccrít - 12%. Conclui-se que as linhagens selvagens e transfectadas de S2 possuem entre si uma atividade respiratória diferente e também que as novas metodologias implantadas verificaram-se satisfatoriamente. / Specific respiration rate (QO2) is a key parameter to understand cell metabolism and physiological state, providing useful information for process supervision and control. In this work, we cultivated different insect cells in a very controlled environment, being able to measure QO2 and critical oxygen concentration (Ccrit). Wild Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) and wild and transfected Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells (able to produce different proteins) were used. All experiments were performed in 1-liter working volume Inceltech bioreactor, maintaining temperature controlled at 28ºC, agitation rate at 100 rpm, and dissolved oxygen (DO) at 40% of air saturation, through membrane diffusion of mixed gases (O2 and N2) at constant total flow rate. SF900II serum free medium was used. QO2 was measured through dynamic method and oxygen mass balance in the liquid phase. In this work a new process was implemented during the dynamic method to interrupt completely the oxygen transfer during the execution of this method. It was also implemented a methodology for measurement of Ccrít (determined when DO reduces its decay rate, without oxygen transfer). Maximum cell concentration (Xm), maximum specific respiration rate (QO2) in the exponential phase and Ccrít were reached, as follows: 1) Sf9 (ATCC 1711): Xm - 10,7.106 cel/mL; QO2 - 74,7.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); 2) S2 (Invitrogen): Xm - 51,2.106 cel/mL; QO2 - 3,4.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); Ccrít - 10%; 3) S2AcGPV2 (transfected for GPV expression): Xm - 26,6.106 cel/mL; QO2 -16,0.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); Ccrít - 10%; 4) S2MtEGFP (transfected for EGFP expression): Xm - 17,8.106 cel/mL; QO2 - 25,8.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); Ccrít - 5%; 5) S2AcHBsAgHy (transfected for HbsAg expression): Xm - 16,6.106 cel/mL; QO2 -33,6.10-18 molO2/(cel.s); Ccrít - 12%. From these results, it can be concluded that the studied cell lines have different respiration activity and the new developed methodologies behave satisfactorily.

The Insect Cell - Baculovirus Expression Vector System (IC-BEVS) is widely used for the production of complex recombinant (glyco)proteins. The simplicity of insect cell cultivation in suspension serum-free media and the easy construction of recombinant baculovirus vectors have made the BEVS quite an effective expression system. On the other hand, the BEVS is a transient lytic system that may present some drawbacks in purification and potential degradation of the products. Among the various insect cell lines, the High-Five cell line has a great potential for the production of recombinant proteins using the BEVS in stirred bioreactors, reaching high cell densities and high protein production levels. Moreover, these cells can tolerate environmental stresses and can be cultivated on a large scale (Chapter 1). Unfortunately, up to now, there have been limited data available regarding suitable culture conditions and the metabolism of High-Five cells, a key requirement for the rational development of new processes. The overall goal of the present work was the study of these High-Five cells, in order to develop sophisticated new processes as alternatives to batch cultivation. The original contributions have been developed along two axes. The first axis concerns the study of the physiology and metabolism of High-Five cells. At first, we undertook a study aiming to prevent cell ring formation on suspension culture recipient walls (Chapter 2). Next, we analyzed environmental factors affecting insect cell growth and death, by comparing and developing methods able to distinguish between apoptosis and necrosis of cells (Chapter 3). The comprehensive study of the extended metabolism of High-Five cells was done using a metabolic flux network that takes account of the catabolism but also the anabolism of uninfected and baculovirus-infected cells (Chapter 4). The second axis was the application of the previously gained knowledge on High-Five cells to develop high-density systems specifically adapted to them: a fed-batch feeding strategy consisting of different pulses developed to increase the productivity of cells during infection (Chapter 5) and a fixed-bed reactor system (Chapter 6), as an alternative to classic perfusion, adapted to High-Five cells for recombinant protein production. In sum, new physiological and metabolic knowledge has been translated into new process options for High-Five cells.

Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) IIIB is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by a defect in alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAGLU), a lysosomal enzyme involved in the degradation of heparan sulphate. Dysfunctional NAGLU gives rise to a clinical phenotype of severe and progressive mental retardation, often accompanied by hyperactivity and aggressive behaviour. At present, there is no effective treatment for MPS IIIB. However, cloning of the human NAGLU cDNA has made the potential production of human recombinant enzyme for use in enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) a viable option. The work outlined herein focuses on attempts to produce human recombinant NAGLU (rNAGLU) using both yeast and insect cell based expression systems; with the major focus on yeast based expression. Use of a humanized yeast strain, codon optimisation of a portion of the NAGLU gene, selection of Mut+, MutS and multiple integrant strains, and growth at decreased temperature were explored to optimise NAGLU expression in the methylotrophic yeast, Pichia pastoris. As none of these measures resulted in abundant NAGLU production, Sf9 and Tni insect cell lines were investigated as an alternate expression system. Additionally, a protein transduction domain (PTD) was fused to NAGLU (NTAT) to circumvent current problems faced in delivering therapeutic enzymes to the brain. NAGLU protein, with and without a fused PTD, were expressed using stable transfection and baculovirus infection techniques. Small scale experiments utilizing the baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS) have yielded promising results, generating functionally active NAGLU and NTAT protein of the expected approximately 80-85 kDa molecular mass. This preliminary success indicates the BEVS may be an attractive option for the large scale production of rNAGLU and rNTAT.

Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) IIIB is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by a defect in alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAGLU), a lysosomal enzyme involved in the degradation of heparan sulphate. Dysfunctional NAGLU gives rise to a clinical phenotype of severe and progressive mental retardation, often accompanied by hyperactivity and aggressive behaviour. At present, there is no effective treatment for MPS IIIB. However, cloning of the human NAGLU cDNA has made the potential production of human recombinant enzyme for use in enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) a viable option. The work outlined herein focuses on attempts to produce human recombinant NAGLU (rNAGLU) using both yeast and insect cell based expression systems; with the major focus on yeast based expression. Use of a humanized yeast strain, codon optimisation of a portion of the NAGLU gene, selection of Mut+, MutS and multiple integrant strains, and growth at decreased temperature were explored to optimise NAGLU expression in the methylotrophic yeast, Pichia pastoris. As none of these measures resulted in abundant NAGLU production, Sf9 and Tni insect cell lines were investigated as an alternate expression system. Additionally, a protein transduction domain (PTD) was fused to NAGLU (NTAT) to circumvent current problems faced in delivering therapeutic enzymes to the brain. NAGLU protein, with and without a fused PTD, were expressed using stable transfection and baculovirus infection techniques. Small scale experiments utilizing the baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS) have yielded promising results, generating functionally active NAGLU and NTAT protein of the expected approximately 80-85 kDa molecular mass. This preliminary success indicates the BEVS may be an attractive option for the large scale production of rNAGLU and rNTAT.