Populations of Cimex lectularius, the bed bug, have resurged around the world posing significant challenges for pest management professionals and causing physical, economic, and emotional strife. Pyrethroid resistance has been found in the vast majority of populations making pest management more difficult. The objectives of my dissertation research were to document the evolution of resistance to pyrethroid and neonicotinoid combination products (called combination products here) and to a neonicotinoid in the laboratory, to record potential fitness costs to resistance to the combination products, and to compare the efficacy of nine insecticides on six populations. In the laboratory, populations of bed bugs evolve resistance rapidly to a combination product and that resistance translates into cross resistance to another combination product. In a follow up experiment, resistance to a neonicotinoid occurred after three generations of selection. Cross resistance between neonicotinoid and pyrethroid resistance was also found, likely due to a common detoxification mechanism (cytochrome P450 mediated metabolism). Resistance was associated with life history costs in three populations that had been selected with a combination product. Therefore, in the absence of selection pressure, populations of bed bugs should revert towards increasing susceptibility. Two pyrethroid products and three combination products were effective at killing three populations of bed bugs but were relatively ineffective against three other populations. However, the combination product, Transport GHP®, the single action pyrrole product, Phantom SC®, and the single action desiccant, CimeXa®, killed 95 to 100% of all populations investigated over a 14-day exposure. Taken together, results reported in this dissertation suggest that insecticide resistance management may be a useful tool for extending the efficacy of insecticides for control of C. lectularius.

O controle de Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) tem sido realizado principalmente pelo uso de inseticidas químicos e plantas geneticamente modificadas que expressam toxinas de Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) no Brasil. Casos de evolução da resistência no campo a estes agentes de controle têm sido uma das grandes ameaças para programas de MIP. Inseticidas diamidas ainda representam uma importante opção para o manejo de S. frugiperda; sendo assim, estudos que fomentem a implementação de estratégias pró-ativas de manejo da resistência são fundamentais para a manutenção da eficácia deste grupo químico no controle de S. frugiperda. Os objetivos da presente tese foram: (i) Monitorar a resistência de S. frugiperda a inseticidas diamidas no Brasil, utilizando métodos genotípico e fenotípico; (ii) Selecionar em laboratório uma linhagem de S. frugiperda resistente a inseticidas diamidas e caracterizar as bases genéticas da resistência; e (iii) Investigar os mecanismos associados à resistência de S. frugiperda a inseticidas diamidas. O método de F2 \"screen\" foi utilizada para o monitoramento genotípico da resistência de S. frugiperda ao inseticida chlorantraniliprole, sendo testadas 817 isolinhas provenientes de 14 populações brasileiras de S. frugiperda entre os anos agrícolas 2016 e 2017. Dentre as populações testadas, foi verificada uma variação de 0,0030 a 0,0781 na frequência de alelos que conferem resistência a chlorantraniliprole, com média geral de 0,0217. No monitoramento fenotípico, foram testadas ≈ 70 populações de S. frugiperda coletadas das principais regiões produtoras de milho durante os anos agrícolas 2016, 2017 e 2018. A sobrevivência larval para o inseticida chlorantraniliprole variou de 0,00 a 32,08% na concentração diagnóstica de 0,505 µg de chlorantraniliprole cm-2. Para o inseticida flubendiamide, as sobrevivências variaram de 0,00 a 46,25% na concentração diagnóstica de 2,842 µg de flubendiamide cm-2. Populações de S. frugiperda da Bahia, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul e Goiás apresentaram as menores suscetibilidades a chlorantraniliprole e flubendiamide. Os valores de CL50 das linhagens suscetível (Sus) e resistente a chlorantraniliprole (Chlorant-R) foram 0,011 e 2,610 µg i.a.cm-2, respectivamente, com razão de resistência (RR) de ≈ 240 vezes. A herança da resistência de S. frugiperda a chlrontraniliprole foi caracterizada como autossômica, incompletamente recessiva e monogênica. A linhagem resistente a chlorantraniliprole apresentou moderada resistência cruzada para cyantraniliprole (RR ≈ 27 vezes) e muito alta para flubendiamide (RR > 42000 vezes). A pré-exposição a diferentes sinergistas inibidores de enzimas de detoxificação não aumentou significativamente a suscetibilidade larval, sugerindo que a resistência metabólica não está envolvida na resistência de S. frugiperda a diamidas. Mediante sequenciamento da região C-terminal dos receptores de rianodina (RyR) nos domínios II a IV, foi detectada a mutação I4734M que foi recentemente descrita como um dos mecanismos de resistência devido à alteração no alvo de ação de inseticidas diamidas em outras pragas de Lepidoptera. Os resultados obtidos no presente trabalho servirão para a implementação de estratégias efetivas de manejo da resistência para preservar a vida útil de diamidas para o manejo de S. frugiperda no Brasil. / The control of Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) has been performed mainly by the use of insecticides and genetically modified plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) toxins in Brazil. Field-evolved resistance to these control agents represents a major threat in IPM programs. Diamide insecticides represent an important tool for managing S. frugiperda; therefore, studies that promote proactive resistance management strategies are important to prolong the lifetime of this chemical group to control S. frugiperda. The goals of this dissertation were: (i) To monitor S. frugiperda resistance to diamide insecticides in Brazil, using genotypic and phenotypic methods; (ii) To select a resistant strain of S. frugiperda to diamide insecticides under laboratory conditions and to characterize the genetic basis of resistance; and (iii) to investigate the resistance mechanisms of S. frugiperda to diamides insecticides. The F2 screen method was used to genotypic monitoring of S. frugiperda resistance to chlorantraniliprole resistance by testing 817 isofamilies from 14 Brazilian populations of S. frugiperda collected in 2016 and 2017 crop seasons. Among the populations tested, resistance allelic frequency to chlorantraniliprole ranged from 0.0030 to 0.0781, with overall average of 0.0217. In the phenotypic monitoring, we monitored ≈ 70 populations of S. frugiperda collected from major maize-growing regions during the crop seasons 2016, 2017 and 2018. The larval survival for chlorantraniliprole insecticide ranged from 0.00 to 32.08% at diagnostic concetration of 0.505 µg chlorantraniliprole cm-2 and 0.00 to 46.25% for flubendiamide at diagnostic concentration of 2.842 µg flubendiamide cm-2. Populations of S. frugiperda from Bahia, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul and Goiás showed the lowest susceptibilities to chlorantraniliprole and flubendiamide. The LC50 values of the susceptible (Sus) and chlorantraniliprole-resistant (Chlorant-R) strains were 0.011 and 2.610 µg i.a. cm-2, respectively, with a resistance ratio (RR) of ≈ 240-fold. The inheritance of chlorantraniliprole resistance in S. frugiperda was characterized as autosomal, incompletely recessive and monogenic. The chlorantraniliprole-resistant strain showed moderate cross-resistance to cyantraniliprole (RR ≈ 27-fold) and high cross-resistance to flubendiamide (RR > 42,000-fold). Pre-exposure to different synergists known to inhibit detoxification enzymes did not result in significantly increased larval toxicity, suggesting a minor role of metabolic resistance. Sequencing of the FAW ryanodine receptor (RyR) C-terminal domains II to VI revealed a SNP, resulting in a I4734M mutation recently described to confer target-site resistance to diamides in lepidopteran pests. The results obtained herein will help for the implementation of effective resistance management strategies to preserve the lifetime of diamides to manage S. frugiperda in Brazil.