Novice Instructional Designers (IDs) often struggle to perform at the same level as experts. Specialized knowledge and experience are needed to discover the challenges and device appropriate solutions. Scaffold, guides, and heuristics can help novice when needing to perform tasks that require specialized knowledge. One common instructional design task requiring specialized knowledge is the development of instructional materials. Instructional message design (IMD) is a problem solving process to improve the quality of instructional materials through the application of research based principles. As this process is often not covered in novice IDs training, they will encounter more issues while attempting to address the challenges that come with creating instructional materials. Using a developmental study, a decision support tool was created to assist novice IDs with applying IMD, specifically the redundancy principle due to its ability to improve the communication within the materials. This study describes the operationalization of the principle, the design and development of the tool, expert review and revisions made based on their feedback, and the implications from the development of such a tool. / Doctor of Philosophy / Novices usually struggle to do tasks like experts. This is truer as the number of tasks and amount of specialized knowledge needed to do those tasks increases. Novices can perform these tasks if guides or tools are available. When creating courses, there are many tasks to accomplish like creating course materials. There are many rules to support the making of good, effective course materials. This study focused on designing and developing a tool to assist the novice when making course materials. The tool would help novices apply a rule to improve course materials so that students would have a better experience when using them.

An increasing number of students are learning in classrooms that employ electronic presentations designed in PowerPoint and other similar software programs. The design of the slides in such electronic presentations has an impact upon student learning, and ample recommendations are made within the literature as to specific strategies that serve as presumed best practices for the design of those slides that will best facilitate learning. While most of such recommended strategies are well supported by cognitive theory – they are considered to positively impact learning by contributing to decreased cognitive load, leveraged dual coding, and facilitated active processing, for example – many of them are not supported by empirical evidence that they do in fact enhance learning. Some of the recommended best practice strategies unsupported by empirical evidence include the use of progressive disclosure, dimming, and highlighting of text instead of full disclosure of text. Through the development and use of four separate electronic presentations, each of which was designed to employ one of these specific strategies (full disclosure, progressive disclosure, dimming, and highlighting), this study examined the impact of such strategies on student learning. The findings of this study indicate that significant differences are not evident in learning among the four different strategies. As such, this initial foray into the examination of the effectiveness of these four strategies indicates that any of the four strategies may be used with equal impact in the design of electronic presentations by instructors who want to help foster student learning. / Doctor of Philosophy / An increasing number of students are learning in classrooms that employ electronic presentations designed in PowerPoint and other similar software programs. The design of the slides in such electronic presentations has an impact upon student learning, and ample recommendations are made within the literature as to specific strategies that serve as presumed best practices for the design of those slides that will best facilitate learning. While most of such recommended strategies are well supported by cognitive theory, many of them are not supported by empirical evidence that they do in fact enhance learning. Some of the recommended best practice strategies unsupported by empirical evidence include the use of progressive disclosure, dimming, and highlighting of text instead of full disclosure of text. Through the development and use of four separate electronic presentations, each of which was designed to employ one of these specific strategies (full disclosure, progressive disclosure, dimming, and highlighting), this study examined the impact of such strategies on student learning. The findings of this study indicate that significant differences are not evident in learning among the four different strategies. As such, this initial foray into the examination of the effectiveness of these four strategies indicates that any of the four strategies may be used with equal impact in the design of electronic presentations by instructors who want to help foster student learning.

Augmented reality, defined as a real-time direct or indirect view of a physical real-world environment that has been enhanced by adding digital computer generated information to it, is rapidly developing in terms of associated hardware (wearable displays, wireless mobile devices) and software (development platforms). AR enhanced instruction has been shown to provide cognitive and psychomotor support during procedural learning and has been shown to use both words and pictures when delivering instructional content.  A set of message design guidelines, created using a design and development research approach, can be used by novice designers to effectively manage the use of words and pictures while developing instructional applications for AR. / Ph. D.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether cueing strategies embedded in computer delivered text messages affected the recall and comprehension of students who differed in their field dependent-independent cognitive style orientations. Two hundred thirty-eight undergraduate students of Virginia Tech participated the study, and 219 sets of valid data were used for the statistical analyses. All participants were given the Group Embedded Figures Test to determine their level of field dependence-independence. They were then randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups that varied in their use of cueing strategy. The first treatment group featured computer delivered text messages with color-highlighted-keywords, the second group featured the same textual content with color-highlighted-key-phrases, and the third group was a control group that featured the same content and employed no cueing strategy. Participants were administered two tests following the treatments, one that assessed knowledge of terminology and another that assessed comprehension. A 3 x 3 Analysis of Variance was conducted to explore the main effects for field dependency and cueing strategy and any interaction effect between the two factors. The results showed that field independents outperformed field dependents in all tests. There were no significant differences for the three treatments; the cueing strategies employed in this study had no effect on participants' learning. A significant interaction was seen between field dependency and cueing strategy. However, the results of a one-way ANOVA are unexpected: the cueing strategies employed did not improve field dependents' performance on the assessments and actually hindered the performance of field independents. / Ph. D.

In the past decades, teaching and learning has undergone rapid transformation partly because of advances in technology and access to such technology (Sung, Chang, and Liu, 2016). Mobile technologies (i.e. tablets, smartphones, and access to Internet) have become widespread, and is visible, even in the developing world (Aguayo, Cochrane, and Narayan , 2017). Mobile technologies allow for online learners to access learning resources on the go (McQuiggan, McQuiggan, Sabourin, and Kosturko, 2015). Instructional message design principles advance empirical tools aimed at producing lessons that allow for effective learning (Bishop, 2014). The purpose of this study was to develop a set of considerations for designing messages for mobile learning primarily through literature review and expert reviewers' feedback. The research methodology employed in the study is based on design and development research methodology (Richey and Klein, 2007). The study utilized Clark and Mayer's (2016) multimedia principles, Center for Universal Design's (1997) universal design for instruction (UDI) and mobile interface design best practices. Five expert reviewers with varied expertise in human computer interaction, special education, mobile learning, and instructional design were sought to review the considerations and provide feedback on its effectiveness for instructional message design. Overall the expert reviewers agreed that the considerations were effective and will be helpful to instructional designers, instructors of instructional design and content developers. They provided several helpful recommendations which were used to revise the considerations for designing content for mobile phones. / Ph. D. / In the past decades, teaching and learning has undergone rapid transformation partly because of advances in technology and access to such technology (Sung, Chang, & Liu, 2016). Mobile technologies (i.e. tablets, smartphones, and access to Internet) have become widespread, and is visible, even in the developing world (Aguayo, Cochrane, & Narayan, 2017). The Mobile technologies allow for online learners to access learning resources on the go (McQuiggan, McQuiggan, Sabourin, & Kosturko, 2015). Instructional message design principles advance empirical tools aimed at producing lessons that allow for effective learning (Bishop, 2014). The purpose of this study was to develop a set of considerations for designing messages for mobile learning primarily through literature review and expert reviewers’ feedback. The research methodology employed in the study is based on design and development research methodology (Richey & Klein, 2007). The study utilized Clark and Mayer’s (2016) multimedia principles, Center for Universal Design’s (1997) universal design for instruction (UDI) and mobile interface design best practices Five expert reviewers with varied expertise in human computer interaction, special education, mobile learning, and instructional design were sought to review the considerations and provide feedback on its effectiveness for instructional message design. Overall, the expert reviewers agreed that the considerations were effective and will be helpful to instructional designers, instructors of instructional design and content developers. They provided several helpful recommendations which were used to revise the considerations for designing content for mobile phones

An Interactive Course Organizer (ICO) is an artifact that contains text and visual representation of a traditional course syllabus, it integrates visual elements, such as timelines, drawings, charts, graphs, maps, or pictures to show the sequencing and organization of major course topics while offering the user an actively controlled progression of the amount of course information covered. The goal of this research was to develop a theoretically- and empirically- grounded guidelines to design and develop of ICOs. It is anticipated that these guidelines can assist course developers and instructional designers in designing ICOs. This study employed a design and developmental research methodology with four phases: analysis, design, development and validation. Findings from literature review investigations in course syllabi, instructional message design, visual literacy, and interactivity theories and research as well as expert review informed the building of the guidelines. / Doctor of Philosophy / Interactive Course Organizer (ICO) is a tool that acts as a course syllabus. It combines both text and visual representation of a traditional course syllabus, and integrates visual elements, such as timelines, drawings, charts, graphs, maps, or pictures to help learners visually see the interrelationships between different parts of the course and how they all fit together. Its purpose is to provide visuals to assist learners in seeing the course and how it is organized "big picture". And by adding the interactivity feature, learners will navigate, access, and view the course content. It is a course framework to help students understand what it is they will be learning in the course. This research aimed to develop a theoretically- and empirically- grounded guidelines to design and develop of ICOs. It is anticipated that these guidelines can assist course developers and instructional designers in designing ICOs. This study employed a design and developmental research methodology with four phases: analysis, design, development and validation. Findings from literature review investigations in course syllabi, instructional message design, visual literacy, and interactivity theories and research as well as expert review informed the building of the guidelines.