Invertebrates are suffering the greatest species loss in the current biodiversity crisis. These animals perform essential ecosystem functions upon which humanity depends yet they are largely ignored m conservation efforts. The main challenges facing invertebrate conservationists, in terms of raising public awareness, are to change common negative perceptions regarding invertebrates and to apply some form of value to them. Conservation efforts can be improved by raising public awareness of, and appreciation for, invertebrates in the context of ecotourism. Current levels of inclusion of invertebrates in ecotourism activities were gauged, using qualitative research methods of participant observation and semi-structured interviews. The response of tourists to the concept of the inclusion of both western/scientific and indigenous knowledge regarding invertebrates into current and planned ecotourism activities was determined using the quantitative research method of a structured questionnaire. Canvassing of tourists was done at a popular ecotourism destination (Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Nature Reserve) and 121 questionnaires were completed. In addition to tourists the opinions and attitudes of a range of people working in ecotourism and conservation were examined via semi-structured interviews. The respondents were specifically selected according to the positions they held in the ecotourism and conservation field and a total of eight people in management, ten ecotourism guides and seven ecotourism trainers were interviewed. The findings revealed that there is currently negligible information regarding invertebrates in ecotourism activities. There was an overwhelmingly positive response from tourists, with 95% indicating that they would like to see information regarding invertebrates included in ecotourism activities. Ecotourism service providers, such as tour guides and those in conservation management also indicated a positive attitude toward the concept. There is thus potential to increase levels of information regarding invertebrates in ecotourism and it is recommended that ecotourism include a focus on invertebrates. Recommendations on how to address the lack of invertebrate information in ecotourism are provided and examples of the types of invertebrates to include in specific ecotourism activities are given. Including a focus on invertebrates in ecotourism will serve the multiple purposes of placing value on invertebrates; raising public awareness and hence the conservation status of invertebrates, and finally will increase the scope of ecotourism. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

The savanna is an important biome, which is under threat from land transformation, and it is therefore a focus for conservation planning. Yet, the invertebrate fauna of this biome is poorly documented and hence there is a need to provide baseline data for this component of biodiversity. This project aimed to provide relevant information that can be used by conservation planners and ecologists, by recommending a sampling strategy for the collection of specific taxa for savanna invertebrate surveys. The effectiveness and efficiency of a sampling strategy using passive and active sampling methods was assessed to provide recommendations for a multi-taxa approach to sampling invertebrates in a savanna ecosystem. In the collection of data, volunteers assisted and they were evaluated in comparison with experienced researchers to assess the effectiveness, efficiency and benefits of using volunteers to carry out multi-taxa invertebrate surveys. In addition, cross-taxon congruency and congruency across taxonomic levels were assessed between nine invertebrate taxa, to select potential surrogates to reduce biodiversity survey costs for conservation planning. Fieldwork was carried out in the Mkhuze Game Reserve (27.67°S:32.27°E, 400km2 ), Phinda Private Game Reserve (27.78°S:32.35°E, 140km2 ) and False Bay Park (27.94°S:32.38°E, 25km2 ) in north-eastern Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Forty-three different sites were sampled between November 2002 and March 2005 (summer months). Twenty of these sites were re-sampled across years and in different months during the summer season, giving 77 sampling events. Fifty-four volunteers recruited by the Earthwatch Institute assisted in the collection of data. Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera (Apoidea), Diptera (Asilidae, Bombyliidae), Neuroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera (Cicadellidae), Coleoptera (Cetoniinae, Scarabaeinae), Orthoptera, Blattodea, Isoptera, Araneae (Araneidae, Thomisidae, Oxyopidae), Scorpionida, Myriapoda (Diplopoda, Chilopoda), Mollusca and Annelida were sampled using four active searching methods (transects, tree beating, leaf litter and sweep sampling) and two passive methods (pan traps and baited traps). In its entirety, this project sampled 50 558 individuals from 797 invertebrate species and an extensive database consisting of 33 257 records now exists. A standardised sampling protocol is described for the effective sampling of multiple invertebrate taxa in a savanna biome and recommendations are made for improving the efficacy and completeness of invertebrate surveys based on the application of species accumulation models. Restrictive active searching methods (quadrats) were found to be more effective for sampling epigaeic invertebrates and should be used in conjunction with leaf litter samples. Flying and plant-dwelling invertebrates should be sampled using a range of sampling methods which include baited, malaise and pan traps, active searching along transects and vacuum sampling. I suggest over 75% of the Lovel/, s.1. - MSc. Thesis i ii total estimated fauna to be a satisfactory and realistic level of inventory completeness for making valid comparisons between regions and across sites. Volunteers sampled lower rates of species accumulation, species richness and unique species when using timed, active search methods. Nevertheless, volunteers and researchers were shown to perform equally well when using un-timed, active searching methods. Previous experience or knowledge of scientific method was beneficial when researchers assessed the perceived usefulness of volunteers to researchers for carrying out fieldwork. The project experience raised the volunteers' environmental awareness, knowledge about biodiversity, invertebrates and conservation research, and enabled volunteers to participate in or design locally relevant conservation based projects on their return home. Cross-taxon congruencies were observed. However, relationships were weak and potential surrogates could not be selected. The use of higher taxonomic levels to represent species shows good potential as a surrogate but only in species-poor genera or families. The use of species density to determine congruency and select surrogates is likely to produce different results to those produced by community similarity. Furthermore, when selecting surrogates from congruency assessments an optimal p-value greater than 0.75 should be required. Below this value, the relationship is likely to be weak and if used as a surrogate misinterpretation may occur. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Forests in the Drakensberg Mountains, although generally small and fragmented, represent a wealth of globally significant biodiversity. This is especially true of the invertebrate fauna, which includes a range of localized endemic species. Ground dwelling, flightless invertebrates living in forests show relative immobility and poor dispersal abilities compared to birds, butterflies and other animal taxa. The naturally fragmented state of Afrotemperate forests also geographically isolates these taxa. No quantified, systematic surveys of flightless invertebrates have been conducted in Afrotemperate forests in the Drakensberg Mountains. This means that, to date, invertebrates have not been considered in the management of these habitats. However, invertebrates are vitally important in ecosystem functioning and maintenance and must be included in management plans. This study quantified flightless invertebrate diversity in Afrotemperate forest patches in the Drakensberg by investigating spatial patterns and seasonal changes in invertebrate diversity. The broad objectives were to: 1) Determine the appropriate spatial scale at which conservation of flightless invertebrates should be implemented; 2) Determine which season, taxa and sampling methods are most suitable for biodiversity assessment and monitoring in Afrotemperate forest; and 3) Investigate methods of prioritizing Afrotemperate forests for conservation of flightless invertebrate diversity. Seventeen forest patches in six valleys in four Drakensberg reserves (Rugged Glen Nature Reserve, Royal Natal National Park, Cathedral Peak and Injisuthi) were sampled in the summer of 2004/2005. In addition, three forests at Injisuthi were sampled in March, June, September and December 2004 to enable seasonal comparisons. Sampling methods included soil samples, leaf litter samples, pitfall traps, active search quadrats and tree beats. The study focused on terrestrial molluscs (Class Gastropoda), earthworms (Class Annelida), onychophorans (Class Onychophora), centipedes (Class Chilopoda), millipedes (Class Diplopoda) and ants (Class Insecta). Target taxa were sorted to morphospecies and then identified to species by taxonomic experts. Seventy-two species and a total of 5261 individual specimens from the six target taxa were collected. Species composition of sites varied along the north-south gradient, and species turnover (beta diversity) was related to the distance between sites. Flightless invertebrate species richness and community structure fluctuated seasonally. Therefore, I recommend that sampling should take place during the wet season (summer months). Molluscs were the most suitable taxon among those surveyed to represent flightless invertebrate diversity and leaf litter samples and active search quadrats are the most suitable sampling methods for flightless invertebrates in forest. This study compared approaches to prioritizing Afrotemperate forests in terms of their invertebrate diversity using ranked species richness with complementarity indices of species presence/absence, taxonomic distinctness (orders, families and genera) and endemicity. There was no consistent spatial trend in the priority ranking of forests based on species richness. Complementarity based on species richness only required eight out of 17 forests to represent all 62 species. Although complementarity based on taxonomic distinctness and endemicity required fewer sites, not all species were represented. The minimum set of sites identified using complementarity based on species richness and augmented with information on taxa of conservation importance (local endemic and threatened species) was the most rigorous approach to prioritizing Afrotemperate forest patches in the Drakensberg for flightless invertebrate conservation. Urgent conservation interventions are required because invertebrates play a critical role in ecosystem functioning. As many forest patches and invertebrate populations as possible should be protected to conserve the full complement of invertebrate species of the region. Special management attention should be paid to the eight forests identified as priority sites in the complementarity analyses. Forest patches cannot survive in isolation, so it is important to manage the grassland, riverine vegetation, forest ecotone and forests holistically. Provisional targets were set for the conservation of flightless invertebrates, based on estimates of the requirements for persistence of invertebrates in Afrotemperate forest, made within the constraints of available information and expert opinion. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

The KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg, South Africa, is predominantly a grassland ecosystem maintained by fire. The effect of the current burning regime on invertebrate and flowering forb diversity in this ecosystem is poorly understood. The overall aim ofthis study was to contribute towards the development of an effective burning regime for the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg that will conserve invertebrates and indigenous forbs, two major components of biodiversity. The objectives were to examine the effect of fire and fire frequency on flowering forb and invertebrate species diversity, to determine whether fire frequency, time since last burn or locality were influencing species composition, and to identify potential biodiversity indicators that reflect overall species richness for use in monitoring of invertebrates and forbs. Sampling took place in March, September and November of 2002 at Giants Castle Game Reserve. Invertebrates were sampled using sweep netting and targeted netting along transects, yellow pan traps and soil quadrats. Invertebrate taxa sampled were ants (Formicidae), butterflies (Lepidoptera), grasshoppers (Orthoptera), leafboppers (Cicadellidae), bees (Apoidea), bee flies (Bombyliidae), hover flies (Syrphidae), robber flies (Asilidae), spiders (Araneae), earthworms (Oligochaeta) and millipedes (Diploda). These were identified to species level with the assistance of taxon experts. Flowering forbs were sampled using five replicates of five by five metre quadrats randomly placed in each site. Overall flowering forb and invertebrate species diversity was higher in grasslands that were burnt for two consecutive years in 2001 and 2002 than in grasslands that were not burnt during those two years. Frequently (annual) and intermediately (biennial) burnt grasslands had significantly higher invertebrate and flowering forb diversity than infrequently (five years without burning) burnt grasslands. This, together with the fact that grasslands burnt during the year of sampling had higher species richness than grasslands burnt two and five years previously suggests that invertebrates and forbs are generally resilient to fire and many forb species appear to be stimulated by fire. However, each burn frequency had its own suite of unique flowering forb and invertebrate species. Invertebrate communities were influenced mostly by locality and the length of time past since the last fire and flowering forb communities were influenced mostly by the length oftime past since the last fire. Fire frequency had the least influence on both invertebrate and forb communities. Ecological succession occurred after each fire in the invertebrate communities but forb communities appear to need more than five years without fire for ecological succession to occur. The findings of this study therefore suggest that using a combination of three fire frequencies would result in patches of grassland in various stages of ecological succession, and would conserve species unique to each burning frequency, and would therefore conserve maximum diversity. Flowering forb species richness and certain invertebrate taxa (ants, leafboppers, spiders and bees) have the potential to act as indicators of overall invertebrate species richness for use in monitoring programmes. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.