Thesis (PhD) -- Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The process route for the production of base and platinum-group metals from natural sulfide ores commonly requires the conversion of high-iron furnace matte into an iron-lean converter matte. This is followed by pre-treatment through cooling of the iron-lean molten matte, physical processing of the solidified matte and hydrometallurgical metal extraction. Lonmin is the third largest producer of platinum-group metals in the world and utilizes Peirce-Smith converters for blowing high-iron furnace matte with air to a final iron concentration or endpoint. The molten matte is water granulated and solidification occurs via fast-cooling. The solidified matte is ground in a closed circuit ball mill with hydrocyclone classification and subjected to first stage atmospheric leaching. The specification of an ideal or desirable converter iron endpoint requires careful consideration. Most importantly, it must ensure the crystallization of converter matte with mineralogical qualities that are within the setpoints of the downstream unit processes and techniques. An additional consideration is for the final blown converter matte to achieve an optimum bulk concentration of the base metals Ni and Cu and platinum-group metals Pt, Pd, Rh, Ru and Ir. Mattes characteristic of variable iron endpoints were regularly produced at the Lonmin converter plant section. Uncertainty by plant metallurgists in knowing the desirable iron endpoint, particularly within the context of the Lonmin base metal refinery, and poor control has had detrimental effects on the mineralogical quality of the final matte and hence on the processing characteristics of the solidified matte particles downstream. A desirable iron endpoint required investigation, selection and implementation at Lonmin. The primary focus of this study was therefore to quantify the effect of a specific iron endpoint on the mineralogy and mineral chemistry of solidified converter matte. A fundamental examination of the solidification process upon cooling was regarded as critical to an in-depth understanding of the attained mineralogy and mineral chemistry as a function of a specific iron endpoint. It became equally important to quantify the effect of the resultant mineralogy, and hence iron endpoint, on the physical property of mineral structures in relation to downstream grinding, liberation and leaching characteristics. Despite considerable industry context, limited in-depth and coherent studies on the effect of a specific iron endpoint on fast-cooled converter matte systems were found in both industrial and scholarly literature. Previous findings in literature offered a limited quantitative understanding of the effect on mineralogy and mineral chemistry. Phase and cooling equilibria of multi-component, iron endpoint specific Ni-Cu-S matte systems were also not fully available. These would have been particularly useful in understanding the complexities of converter matte solidification as a function of iron endpoint. Physical property knowledge of converter matte mineral structures was hardly available and even less so in relation to grinding, liberation and leaching processes. A comprehensive investigation was therefore required to address these extensive knowledge gaps with respect to fastcooled converter matte systems in an industrial framework. Three Peirce-Smith converter production samples, representative of the extent in variability of iron endpoints attained at the converter plant, were used in a systematic investigation coupled to a novel combination of modern analytical techniques, computational thermochemistry and metallurgical testwork. The modern analytical techniques included the application of high resolution transmission electron microscopy and focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy tomography. Computational thermochemistry was applied through the use of MTDATA phase diagram software. Metallurgical testwork involved laboratory batch grinding at various specific energies. Closely associated leach experiments were also considered relevant to this wide-ranging investigation. The Peirce-Smith converter samples investigated were indicative of mattes that attained specific endpoints of 5.17%, 0.99% and 0.15 weight% Fe. The highest combined bulk concentration of the important base and platinum-group metals was achieved in the matte which attained a specific iron endpoint of 0.99%. The mineralogy of all three converter mattes was dominated by nickel sulfide mineral structures matched to the natural mineral of heazlewoodite. Mineral structures of copper sulfide, NiCu-alloy, spinel and OsRu-alloy were also constituents of the different converter mattes. The attainment of a specific iron endpoint was found to result in measurable mineralogical differences with respect to relative mineral abundances, external morphological characteristics and mineral chemistry. The mineralogical differences were particularly distinct between mineral structures of the high (5.17%) and low (0.99% and 0.15%) iron mattes. Subtle mineralogical differences were evident between mineral structures of the low iron mattes. The 0.99% Fe matte was characteristic of a significantly higher NiCu-alloy relative abundance, compared to the 5.17% Fe matte. The NiCu-alloy structures were found to act as the primary collectors of the economically significant platinum-group metals. Mineralogical observations were used to develop an understanding of the underlying mineralization mechanism of NiCu-alloy structures. High-fidelity color and grayscale 3D reconstructions were produced of the resultant mineralized structures. It was shown theoretically that variations in iron endpoint specific starting compositions of oxygen-free liquid matte systems alter the solidification pathway towards the eutectic. Moreover, a quantitative understanding of liquid phase solidification of the high and low iron matte systems, including oxygen, was developed to within ±2.5 oC. Most of the specific energy available for grinding was expended breaking the nickel sulfide matrix, particularly of the high iron matte. The breakage rates of copper sulfide mineral structures in the 5.17% Fe matte were calculated to be higher than in the 0.15% Fe matte at 25kWh/t specific energy. The degree of copper sulfide liberation was shown to be higher for the 5.17% Fe matte than for the 0.15% Fe matte at the same specific energy of grinding. A higher degree of Ni extraction and Cu cementation could be achieved when leaching low iron matte particles. The production of converter matte attaining a specific iron endpoint of 0.99% was found to be the most suitable with respect to endpoint selection criteria. A practical iron endpoint range of 1.6% to 1.0% was recommended for the production of converter matte with a resultant mineralogical quality within the constraints of the Lonmin base metal refinery. This study offers an integrated understanding of base and platinum-group metals production as a function of a desirable iron endpoint at Lonmin. This was not previously available in metal production literature. New technology for the monitoring and consistent control of such a practical iron endpoint range can subsequently be implemented. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die prosesroete vir die produksie van onedel en platinumgroepmetale uit natuurlike swawelertse vereis gewoonlik die omsetting van ’n ysterryke hoogoondmat in ’n ysterarm omsettermat. Hierna volg voorbehandeling deur die afkoeling van die ysterarm gesmelte mat, fisiese verwerking van die soliede mat, en hidrometallurgiese metaalekstraksie. Lonmin is die derde grootste produsent van platinumgroepmetale ter wêreld en gebruik Peirce-Smith-omsetters om ysterryke hoogoondmat met lug te blaas totdat dit ’n finale ysterkonsentrasie- of ystereindpunt bereik. Die gesmelte mat word met water granuleer, en solidifikasie vind deur middel van snelafkoeling plaas. Die soliede mat word in ’n geslotekringbalmeul met hidrosikloonklassifikasie gemaal en aan eerstestadium- atmosferiese loging onderwerp. Die spesifikasie van ’n ideale of gewenste ystereindpunt verg deeglike oorweging. Bowenal moet dit verseker dat die omsettermat kristalliseer met mineralogiese eienskappe wat binne die setpunte van die eenheidsprosesse en - tegnieke verder af in die prosesstroom val. ’n Bykomende oorweging is dat die uiteindelike geblaasde omsettermat ’n optimale massakonsentrasie van die onedel metale Ni en Cu en die platinumgroepmetale Pt, Pd, Rh, Ru en Ir moet bevat. Matte met die kenmerke van wisselende ystereindpunte is gereeld by die Lonminomsetteraanleg geproduseer. Die onsekerheid van metallurge by die aanleg oor die gewenste ystereindpunt – veral binne die konteks van die Lonmin-raffinadery vir onedel metale – sowel as swak beheer het ’n nadelige uitwerking gehad op die mineralogiese gehalte van die uiteindelike mat, en dus ook op die verwerkingskenmerke van die soliede matdeeltjies verder af in die prosesstroom. Die bepaling van die gewenste ystereindpunt het sorgvuldige ondersoek, seleksie en toepassing deur Lonmin vereis. Hierdie studie is dus hoofsaaklik uitgevoer om die uitwerking van ’n spesifieke ystereindpunt op die mineralogie en minerale chemie van soliede omsettermat te kwantifiseer. ’n Grondliggende ondersoek na die solidifikasieproses by afkoeling is as noodsaaklik beskou vir ’n diepgaande begrip van die verworwe mineralogie en minerale chemie as ’n funksie van ’n spesifieke ystereindpunt. Mettertyd het dit egter ewe belangrik geword om die uitwerking van die gevolglike mineralogie, en dus die ystereindpunt, op die fisiese eienskappe van minerale strukture met betrekking tot maling-, vrystellings- en loogprosesse verder af in die prosesstroom te kwantifiseer. Ondanks heelwat bedryfskonteks, het nóg bedryfs- nóg vakkundige literatuur veel diepte- en samehangende studies oor die uitwerking van ’n spesifieke ystereindpunt op snelafgekoelde omsettermatstelsels opgelewer. Vorige bevindinge in die literatuur het boonop ’n beperkte kwantitatiewe begrip van die uitwerking op mineralogie en minerale chemie getoon. Die fase- en afkoelingsekwilibriums van ystereindpuntspesifieke Ni-Cu-S-matstelsels met veelvuldige komponente was ook nie ten volle beskikbaar nie. Dít sou veral goed te pas gekom het om die kompleksiteite van omsettermatsolidifikasie as ’n funksie van ystereindpunt te verstaan. Kennis van die fisiese eienskappe van die minerale strukture van omsettermat was kwalik beskikbaar, terwyl selfs minder inligting oor maling-, vrystellings- en loogprosesse opgespoor kon word. Daarom was ’n omvattende ondersoek nodig om hierdie beduidende kennisleemtes met betrekking tot snelafgekoelde omsettermatstelsels in ’n nywerheidsraamwerk aan te vul. Drie Peirce-Smith-omsetterproduksiemonsters wat die wisselende bestek van ystereindpunte by die omsetteraanleg verteenwoordig, is in ’n stelselmatige ondersoek gebruik, tesame met ’n vernuwende kombinasie van moderne ontledingstegnieke, gerekenariseerde termochemiese bewerkings en metallurgiese toetswerk. Die moderne ontledingstegnieke sluit onder andere in hoëresolusie-transmissie-elektronmikroskopie (HRTEM) en gefokusdeioonstraalskandering-elektron-mikroskopie (FIB SEM) tomografie. Die gerekenariseerde termochemiese bewerkings is met behulp van MTDATAfasediagramsagteware uitgevoer. Metallurgiese toetswerk het die maling van laboratoriumlotte teen verskillende spesifieke energieë behels. Nou verwante loogproefnemings is ook as relevant vir hierdie omvattende studie beskou. Die bestudeerde Peirce-Smith-omsettermonsters het op matte met spesifieke eindpunte van 5.17%, 0.99% en 0.15 gewig% Fe gedui. Die hoogste gekombineerde massakonsentrasie van die belangrike onedel en platinumgroepmetale is in die mat met ’n spesifieke ystereindpunt van 0.99% gevind. Die mineralogie van ál drie omsettermatte is oorheers deur die minerale strukture van nikkelsulfied, wat met die natuurlike mineraal heazlewoodiet ooreenstem. Die verskillende omsettermatte het ook die minerale strukture van kopersulfied, NiCu-allooi, spinel en OsRu-allooi bevat. Daar is bevind dat die verkryging van ’n spesifieke ystereindpunt tot meetbare mineralogiese verskille in die relatiewe volopheid van minerale, die eksterne morfologiese kenmerke sowel as minerale chemie lei. Die mineralogiese verskille was veral duidelik te sien tussen die minerale strukture van die ysterryke (5.17% Fe) en ysterarm (0.99% en 0.15% Fe) matte. Fyn mineralogiese verskille is ook tussen die minerale strukture van die ysterarm matte bespeur. Die 0.99% Fe-mat het tipies beduidend meer NiCu-allooi as die 5.17% Fe-mat bevat. Die NiCu-allooistrukture tree oënskynlik op as die hoofversamelaars van die ekonomies belangrike platinumgroepmetale. Mineralogiese waarnemings is gebruik om ’n begrip te ontwikkel van die onderliggende mineralisasiemeganisme van NiCuallooistrukture. Die gevolglike gemineraliseerde strukture is met behulp van driedimensionele rekonstruksies met hoë kleurgetrouheid sowel as in grysskaal voorgestel. Daar is teoreties aangetoon dat variasies in ystereindpuntspesifieke beginsamestellings van suurstofvrye vloeibare matstelsels die solidifikasieroete na die eutetikum wysig. Daarbenewens is die vloeifasesolidifikasie van die ysterryke en ysterarm matstelsels, wat suurstof insluit, op sowat ±2.5 oC gekwantifiseer. Die meeste van die spesifieke energie wat vir maling beskikbaar was, is gebruik om die nikkelsulfiedmatriks te breek, veral vir die ysterryke mat. Berekeninge toon dat die breektempo’s van die minerale strukture van kopersulfied by die 5.17% Fe-mat hoër was as by die 0.15% Fe-mat teen ’n spesifieke energie van 25 kWh/t. Die mate van kopersulfiedvrystelling was hoër by die 5.17% Fe-mat as by die 0.15% Fe-mat by dieselfde spesifieke energie vir maling. ’n Hoër mate van Ni-ekstraksie en Cu-sementasie is verkry toe ysterarm matdeeltjies geloog is. Wat eindpuntseleksiemaatstawwe betref, is die produksie van ’n omsettermat met ’n spesifieke ystereindpunt van 0,99% as die mees geskikte aangewys. ’n Praktiese ystereindpuntbestek van 1.6% tot 1.0% word aanbeveel vir die produksie van ’n omsettermat met ’n gevolglike mineralogiese gehalte wat binne die perke van die Lonmin-raffinadery vir onedel metale val. Hierdie studie bied ’n geïntegreerde begrip van die produksie van onedel en platinumgroepmetale as ’n funksie van ’n gewenste ystereindpunt by Lonmin. Hierdie inligting was nie voorheen in literatuur oor metaalproduksie beskikbaar nie. Nuwe tegnologie vir die monitering en konsekwente beheer van so ’n praktiese ystereindpuntbestek kan dus op grond hiervan in werking gestel word.