The aim of this study was to contribute to the comprehension of the connection of element uptake in trees at the Laacher See in Germany and climatic parameters on different time scales. Understanding the relationship of certain elements in trees and temperature might enable the assignment of extraordinary high peaks in the elemental concentration, which cannot be explained by temperature, to another process as CO2 degassing of the mofettes, which are relics of the volcanic past of the lake. Beech and oak trees at the Laacher See are not growing close to their climatic distribution limit. The relationship between tree-ring width and temperature might be not distinct enough and therefore insufficient to reconstruct climate back in time based on typical dendrochronological methods. Increasing temperatures affect the production of biomass and the release of elements in the soil. These elements are taken up by roots of trees and are implemented in yearly forming tree-rings. Using elements in tree-rings is discussed to be an alternative method for the reconstruction of climate back in time. However, there is an ongoing debate about dendrochemical methods as it is still not clear how much the resolution of the results is affected by translocation of elements between tree-rings. In this study, tree-cores of living beech and oak trees, sampled 2020, have been measured using an energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence technique (ED-XRF), which is a non-destructive method for multi-element analysis. Eleven elements (Ca, Co, Cu, Cr, Ge, Fe,K, Mn, Ni, Sc, Zn) and three elemental ratios (K/Ca, Ca/Mn, Fe/Mn) have been found to show significant positive or negative correlations in the time period from 1901 to 2018 between their concentration in tree-rings and temperature. Since Cu, Ge and K also show significant correlations with temperature in 10-year periods, higher mobility between tree-rings is assumed for those elements. Low mobility is suggested for the elements Ca and Mn as their concentration in the bark and in the wood shows little correlation. Low mobility indicated by significant correlations between elements and yearly temperature or a lack ofcorrelation between the concentration in the bark and in the wood, makes elements more suitable as indicators for temperature. However, the explanation of element concentration in tree-rings is complex, as elements are influencing each other. Antagonistic behaviour has especially been observed for the elements Ca, Co, Ge, Fe, K, Mn, Ni and Sc. These elements are showing significant correlations with temperature as well, which reveals the dependency of elemental concentrations on more than one variable. Furthermore, acidic soil at the study site might be caused by elevated CO2 concentrations, which originate from mofettes. Increasing concentrations of Fe and Ca in tree-rings give indication for decreasing soil pH. Acidification is a contrary process to temperature increase, as it generally reduces the microbial activity and therefore the availability of nutrients.

In this thesis, the results of microfossil, biofacies, and geochemical analyses (µXRF) of the Upper Cretaceous (Turonian) Ferron – Notom delta, Utah, USA are reported and discussed. The Notom delta is the oldest of three clastic deltas in the Ferron Sandstone Member, Mancos Shale Formation. Foraminifera and testate amoebae were recovered from ninety-eight mudstone samples among five well-exposed outcrops (Caineville North, Steamboat, Blue Hills, Neilson Wash, and Coalmine Wash). Detailed observations showed foraminifera, and testate amoebae tests have undergone post-burial compression (flattening), dissolution, and transport/reworking; therefore, identification of these assemblages to their species level is difficult. The micropaleontological analysis of the Ferron-Notom delta consists of three studies. Morphogroup analysis was applied on foraminifera and testate amoebae, where a relationship between the test morphology and habitat was established. Morphogroup analysis resulted in four main morphogroups and eleven morphotypes and were assigned to life mode, environment, and feeding strategies. Three foraminifera morphogroups and one testate amoebae morphogroup were established indicate a range of environments, from shallow shelf to shallow shelf to lagoon/estuary environments. Biofacies analysis using the morphotypes was applied on three outcrops (Caineville North, Steamboat, and Blue Hills). We use the morphotypes to define the four main biofacies using cluster analysis, and biodiversity indices. Four biofacies showed marine and fluvial (freshwater) influences. Salinity and OM indices were derived from the relationship of foraminifera morphotypes (BiS, TrS, TS) and testate amoebae morphotypes (Ta-F, Ta-D, Ta-S) that follows lithofacies trends. Because of the under-representation of calcareous foraminifera (due to taphonomic and/or diagenetic factors), the biodiversity indices are treated herein as relative measures. Despite this taphonomic bias, the agglutinated foraminifera and testate amoebae morphogroups show trends with salinity both among the outcrops and stratigraphically within the outcrops. The Blue Hills outcrop represents the most landward and lowest salinity environment (tidally-influenced backwater), Steamboat is more coast proximal with a higher salinity of the delta front and fluvial estuarine environments, and the Caineville North outcrop represents the most coast proximal (fluvial/estuarine to deltaic/prodeltaic) with salinities ranging from low to medium. It appears that the landward transport and coastward of tests was a significant source of taphonomic bias. Nonetheless, the assemblages provide useful depositional information that correlates with previously documented lithofacies data. A salinity index based on a ratio of trochospiral taxa versus testate amoebae was found to provide a useful measure of coastal proximity that matches lithofacies trends. The µXRF analysis was conducted on twenty-nine mudstone samples from the Caineville North outcrop to examine elemental proxies for paleo-salinity (Sr/Ba), organic matter (K/S), redox (V/Ni), and sediment sources (Zr/Rb, Ti/Fe, Ti/Ca). Twenty-nine surface mudstone samples collected from four lithofacies representing prodelta, delta front, fluvial valley fill and shelf environments. Fourteen elements (Ti, Fe, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ni, Rb, Zr, S, V, Cu, Mn, Si, and K) were used to calculate proxy ratios to detect variations in terrigenous sediments, carbonate production, salinity, grain size, and fluvial inputs in the Caineville North outcrop. Elemental data showed good correspondence between the elemental data and the lithofacies and microfossil indices. Sr/Ba and Ca/Fe showed relationships with carbonate content and proximity to the shoreline. The paleo-salinity proxy (Sr/Ba) did not respond to salinity, but was more responsive to lithological change of carbonate content. The microfossil salinity index seems to be a more accurate paleo-salinity indicator. The proxy for fluvial input of sediment (Zr/Rb and Ti/Fe) agree well with the lithofacies trends, and Zr/Rb and Ti/Fe showed highest values within the fluvial valley fill facies, with higher variability of Ti/Fe compared to the other lithofacies (prodelta, delta front, and shelf), corresponding to response to the proximity of the depositional sites to a fluvial sediment source. The redox proxy V/Ni matched the previously derived microfossil OM index ("bolivind-type" taxa) showing a strong relationship between eutrophication and redox trends. The study aims to establish important baseline geochemical compositions of sediment sources to establish patterns and trends with sediment succession in the deeper basin (offshore; i.e. Mancos Shale). Potentially, these nearshore to fluvial trends will provide important geochemical data to assess changes in paleoclimate, and sea-level in offshore sediment successions. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This thesis represents the first example of a pre-agricultural, pre-colonial land disturbance event in the archaeological record of North America. It demonstrates the critical importance of multivariate analysis and µ-XRF core scanning in determining precise chronologies for episodes of heightened clastic input from soil erosion, enhanced by human occupation, shellfish harvesting, and burial mound construction. / Serpent Mounds is a prehistoric (Middle Woodland Period, ca. 2000--1000 BP) burial mound complex located on the north shore of Rice Lake, in southern Ontario, Canada. The complex includes a 60m long and 10m wide sinuous earthwork ridge interpreted as a serpent effigy and eight smaller oval mound structures. Archaeological excavations determined seasonal site occupation for harvesting wild rice and shellfish and conducting mortuary rites. The timing of mound construction and site occupation is poorly constrained by limited radiocarbon dates, restricted to burials. The site is of high cultural importance as the only known effigy mound structure in Canada and is a sacred First Nations burial ground; thus all investigation must employ non-invasive techniques. High-resolution XRF Core Scanning and micropaleontologic analysis (testate amoebae) of 12 lake sediment cores was employed to investigate the timing of mound construction, and assess geochemical records of prehistoric land disturbance. Land disturbance is indicated by increased sediment flux, by rising abundance of minerogenic elements (K, Ti, Zr, Si, Fe) within a distinctive silt-rich gyttja unit. The event is also recorded in the thecamoebian assemblage, which is dominated by indicators of a eutrophic, turbid lake environment. Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis of µ-XRF data identify distinctive chemofacies across several cores. AMS 14C dates for the prehistoric land disturbance episode correspond with the Point Peninsula occupation, indicating a protracted occupation period of \textasciitilde 750 years (2050 - 1300 cal BP) with two major peaks in soil erosion at 1900 and 1450 cal BP. The sedimentation rate (>1.5mm/yr) during the Middle Woodland phase of enhanced erosion was comparable to that during the 1838 CE dam construction at Hastings. The reconstructed Middle Woodland paleoshoreline and water levels indicate a shallow lake and wetland environment, with viable habitats for wild rice stands and shellfish resources. The results demonstrate that XRF Core Scanning and micropaleontological methods are important for the investigation of culturally-sensitive archaeological sites, including sacred burial grounds where conventional archaeological excavation cannot be undertaken. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Serpent Mounds is a prehistoric (Middle Woodland Period, ca. 2000 - 1000 BP) burial mound complex located in Rice Lake, Ontario. Archaeological excavation (1897 - 1970) determined the site was occupied by people of the Point Peninsula culture (ca. 2200 - 1350 BP) on a seasonal basis, for burial rites and shellfish gathering. Many questions remain with regard to the date of mounds construction, how long the site was occupied, and how occupation and construction activities impacted the local environment. The site has been designated as a National Historical Site and excavation is no longer permitted in the interest of site preservation and cultural value to First Nations. This study investigated the history of environmental changes associated with prehistoric indigenous and European land use changes using minimally-invasive methods, including sonar bathymetric mapping, XRF Core Scanning and microfossil analysis of lake sediment cores. Sonar data were employed to map the lake bottom relief (bathymetry) and to reconstruct past changes in lake levels and shoreline positions. µ-XRF methods measures changes in elemental abundance in lake core samples to identify human occupation phases and land disturbance. Microfossils (testate amoebae) track the ecosystem response to environmental changes associated with human occupation. The geochemical and microfossil data identified an interval of increased sediment delivery to Rice Lake, coinciding with the arrival of Point Peninsula peoples. The land disturbance is recognized in cores by an increase in zirconium (Zr), titanium (Ti) and other soil-derived elements. During this phase, lake levels rose gradually, wetlands expanded and wild rice was abundant resource available to indigenous peoples. Following European colonization in the 1820’s, and the construction of the Hastings Dam (1838 CE), lake levels increased rapidly by over \SI{2}{\metre}, causing a shift to a more nutrient-rich (eutrophic) lake environment and a decline in wild rice stands. Soil erosion associated with European land clearance is recorded by in a dramatic increase in the abundance of soil-derived elements.

Ancient harbour sediment archives can provide long-term records of changes in coastal palaeoenvironments, settlement history, and anthropogenic impacts on coastal systems. In this study, multi-proxy geoarchaeological investigations were conducted at two long-occupied coastal archaeological sites (Liman Tepe-Clazomenae, western Anatolia, Turkey; Lechaion, northeast Peloponnese, Greece) to document coastal palaeoenvironmental change and harbour basin evolution. Multi-proxy core analyses (micropalaeontology, sedimentary facies) were integrated with geophysical mapping and micro-XRF core scanning (chemofacies) to investigate harbour sediment archives and to reconstruct coastal palaeoenvironments. At Liman Tepe-Clazomenae, the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age (ca. 6700-3000 BCE) coastal palaeogeography was reconstructed using a large subsurface database (>20 cores, ~600-line km geophysical surveys) to determine palaeoshoreline positions and potential locations of prehistoric proto-harbour basins. Geophysical mapping revealed a submerged palaeolandscape with relict river channels and shorelines recording inundation of a middle Neolithic coastal plain. A transgressive systems tract was identified by marine foreshore and shoreface deposits overlying paleosol and lagoonal sediments. Shoreline positions were estimated by back-strip analysis of the de-compacted sediment thickness from the marine transgressive surface. During the middle Neolithic (ca. 6700 BCE) the shoreline was >500 m seaward of the modern shore and transgressed to its maximum extent (~1 km inland) during the Chalcolithic (ca. 4000 BCE). After 4000 BCE, sea level decelerated and the coastline prograded under a high-stand systems tract by barrier accretion. The transition from a Late Bronze Age (LBA) proto-harbour to Iron Age semi-enclosed harbour basin was recorded by shifts in geochemical proxies (Ti/Ca, Si, Br), foraminifera, and sedimentary facies. Shifts in Ti/Ca record potential signals of land clearance and evidence for a 300-year LBA drought period (“Greek Dark Age”). Geophysical mapping of Clazomenae’s Archaic (ca. 7th-6th c. BCE) harbour basin revealed two rubble-constructed breakwater structures and a submerged headland separating east and west basins. Linear magnetic anomalies within the eastern mole indicate a buried (LBA?) pier or breakwater within the rubble mass. At Lechaion, a multi-proxy analysis was conducted on seven cores to determine the timing and causes of the Roman harbour decline and abandonment. Coring identified a basin-wide paraconformity surface separating harbour sediments and overlying marl deposits, which records a rapid transition from a marine-estuarine to restricted evaporitic lake environment. Rapid basin restriction was indicated by a decrease in terrigenous elements (Si, Ti, K, Fe), increased Sr and δ18O, and a shift from marine-estuarine to marsh-freshwater taxa. The event records the 6th c. CE tectonic uplift and destruction of the harbour basin, linked with uplift on the nearby Perachora Peninsula (~1.1 m) during destructive earthquakes in 524 and 551/552 CE. No evidence was found for tsunami events proposed in previous work. This study has documented the development, evolution, and abandonment of harbour basins on two tectonically active coastlines with complex relative sea level histories. Palaeogeographic mapping at Liman Tepe has identified a drowned palaeolandscape with areas of high archaeological potential for submerged prehistoric sites and proto-harbour anchorage areas. At Lechaion, multi-proxy analysis has resolved a long-standing debate, demonstrating that the harbour basin decline in the 6th c. CE was caused by coastal tectonic uplift and rapid basin restriction. / Dissertation / Doctor of Science (PhD)