This dissertation investigates the challenges that Deaf adults encounter at the task of learning computer literacy skills. Deaf adults who communicate using South African Sign Language (SASL) come from poor socio-economic backgrounds are not familiar with the written form of English. They rely on interpreters and Deaf teachers to translate written text into SASL for them to learn computer literacy skill. We present our theme of support, in which Deaf people learn via an intermediary, a teacher or facilitator, in intermediated supported learning. We propose a shift from intermediated supported learning to multimedia supported learning which is most appropriate for the context. Using Community-based co-design we implement two systems: an authoring tool to support lesson content creation by the teacher and a mobile prototype that uses sign language videos to provide computer literacy instruction. We evaluate the two systems to evaluate if they support multimedia-supported learning. The authoring tool allowed the facilitator to create tailored lessons for the Deaf learners using pre-recorded SASL videos and images. The Deaf learners demonstrated ability to do self-paced learning while using the mobile system, better suited to Deaf learners with basic exposure to computer literacy skills.

The ubiquity of mobile phones provides an opportunity to use them for learning programming beyond the classroom. This would be particularly useful for novice learners of programming in resource-constrained environments. However, limitations of mobile phones, such as small screens and small keypads, impede their use as typical programming environments. This study proposed that mobile programming environments could include scaffolding techniques specifically designed for mobile phones, and designed based on learners’ needs. A six-level theoretic framework was used to design scaffolding techniques to support construction of Java programs on a mobile phone. The scaffolding techniques were implemented on an Android platform. Using the prototype, three experiments were conducted with 182 learners of programming from four universities in South Africa and Kenya. Evaluation was conducted to investigate: (i) which scaffolding techniques could support the construction of Java programs on a mobile phone; and (ii) the effect on learners of using these scaffolding techniques to construct Java programs on a mobile phone. Data was collected using computer logs, questionnaires, and image and video recordings. It was found that static scaffolding, such as a program overview and constructing a program one part at a time, supported the construction of programs on a mobile phone. It was also found that automatic scaffolding, such as error prompts and statement dialogs, and user-initiated scaffolding, such as viewing of the full program while creating parts of a program, supported learners to construct programs on the mobile phone. The study also found that the scaffolding techniques enabled learners to attempt and complete more tasks than a non-scaffolded environment. Further, the scaffolding techniques enabled learners to complete programs efficiently, and captured syntactical errors early during program creation. The results also indicated that after the initial familiarization with the scaffolded environment, the scaffolding techniques could enable faster completion of programs. Learners’ feedback indicated that they found the scaffolding techniques useful in supporting programming on a mobile phone and in meeting learners’ needs. This study provides empirical evidence that scaffolding techniques specifically designed for mobile phones and designed based on learners’ needs could support the construction of programs on a mobile phone.

The objective of this project was to test the efficacy of using Extensible Markup Language (XML) - in particular the DocBook 5.0b5 schema - and Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformation (XSLT) to render electronic courseware that can be dynamically re-formatted according to a student’s individual learning style. The text of a typical lesson was marked up in XML according to the DocBook schema, and several XSLT stylesheets were created to transform the XML document into different versions, each according to particular learning needs. These learning needs were drawn from the Felder-Silverman learning style model. The notes had links to trigger JavaScript functions that allowed the student to reformat the notes to produce different views of the lesson. The dynamic notes were tested on twelve users who filled out a feedback questionnaire. Feedback was largely positive. It suggested that users were able to navigate according to their learning style. There were some usability issues caused by lack of compatibility of the program with some browsers. However, the user test is not the most critical part of the evaluation. It served to confirm that the notes were usable, but the analysis of the use of XSLT and DocBook is the key aspect of this project. It was found that XML, and in particular the DocBook schema, was a useful tool in these circumstances, being easy to learn, well supported and having the appropriate structure for a project of this type. The use of XSLT on the other hand was not so straightforward. Learning a declarative language was a challenge, as was using XSLT to transform the notes as necessary for this project. A particular problem was the need to move content from one area of the document to another - to hide it in some cases and reveal it in others. The solution was not straightforward to achieve using XSLT, and does not take proper advantage of the strengths of this technology. The fact that the XSLT processor uses the DOM API, which necessitates the loading of the entire XML document into memory, is particularly problematic in this instance where the document is constantly transformed and re-transformed. The manner in which stylesheets are assigned, as well as the need to use DOM objects to edit the source tree, necessitated the use of JavaScript to create the necessary usability. These mechanisms introduced a limitation in terms of compatibility with browsers and caused the program to freeze on older machines. The problems with browser compatibility and the synchronous loading of data are not insurmountable, and can be overcome with the appropriate use of JavaScript and the use of asynchronous data retrieval as is made possible by the use of AJAX.

Orchestration of learning involves the real-time management of activities performed by educators in learning environments, with a particular focus on the effective use of technology. While different educational settings present unique problems, the common challenges have been noted to primarily be as a result of multiple heterogeneous activities and their associated intrinsic and extrinsic constraints. In addition to these challenges, this thesis argues that the complexities of orchestration are further amplified due to the ad hoc nature of the approaches and techniques used to orchestrate learning activities. The thesis proposes a streamlined approach to technology-driven orchestration of learning, in order to address these challenges and complexities. Specifically, the thesis proposes an organised approach that focuses on three core aspects of orchestration: activity management, resource management and sequencing of learning activities. Orchestration was comprehensively explored in order to identify the core aspects essential for streamlining technology-driven orchestration. Proof-of-concept orchestration toolkits, based on the proposed orchestration approach, were implemented and evaluated in order to assess the feasibility of the approach, its effectiveness and its potential impact on the teaching experience. Comparative analysis and guided orchestration controlled studies were conducted to compare the effectiveness of ad hoc orchestration with streamlined orchestration and to measure the orchestration load, respectively. In addition, a case study of a course that employed a flipped classroom strategy was conducted to assess the feasibility of the proposed approach. The feasibility was further assessed by integrating a workflow, based on the proposed approach, that facilitates the sharing of reusable orchestration packages. The results from the studies suggest that the streamlined approach is more effective when compared to ad hoc orchestration and has a potential to provide a positive user experience. The results also indicate that the approach imposes acceptable orchestration load during scripting of learning activities. Case studies conducted in authentic educational settings suggest that the approach is feasible, and potentially applicable to useful practical usage scenarios. The long-term implications are that streamlining of technology-driven orchestration could potentially improve the effectiveness of educators when orchestrating learning activities.

This dissertation explores virtual storytelling for conveying cultural stories effectively. We set out to investigate: (1) the strengths and/or weaknesses of VR as a storytelling medium; (2) the use of a culturally familiar introductory VE to preface a VE presenting traditional storytelling; (3) the relationship between presence and story experience. We conducted two studies to pursue these aims. Our aims were stated in terms of effective story experience, in the realm of cultural heritage. This was conceptualised as a story experience where story comprehension, interest in the story’s cultural context and story enjoyment were achieved, and where boredom and confusion in the story were low. This conceptualisation was empirically validated by our studies. Three storytelling scenarios were created to tell a traditional San story: text (T); a storytelling VE with no introductory VE (VR+NI); a storytelling VE with a hip-hop themed introductory VE (VR+I). These scenarios comprised our experimental conditions. Questionnaires, measuring interest in hip-hop and the story experience aspects identified above, were developed and psychometrically validated. Study 1 was conducted with a sample of 44 high-school learners and Study 2 with 98 university students. Both studies used a between-subjects design. Study 2 was a refined version of Study 1, improving Study 1’s questionnaires for use in Study 2 and considering two additional variables: attention to the story and perceived strangeness of the story. For our first aim, story experience in the text and VR storytelling scenarios were compared. In Study 1 and 2, comprehension was significantly higher in the T condition than in the two VR conditions combined and attention was higher in Study 2’s T condition. Therefore, we conclude that text is better for achieving story comprehension. In Study 1, interest and enjoyment were significantly higher in the VR condition, while boredom was higher in the T condition. But, no significant differences between text and VR were noted for these variables in Study 2. Comparisons of the T and VR conditions across Study 1 and 2 showed a particularly poor story experience in Study 1’s T group; we speculate that this was due to differences in Study 1 and 2’s samples and procedures. Barring this, there were no interest, enjoyment or boredom differences between T and VR across Study 1 and 2. Thus, we conclude, conservatively, that text and VR are equally good in terms of interest enjoyment and boredom. Confusion was higher in Study 1’s T condition, but this result was counter-intuitive since this condition had also shown higher comprehension. In contrast, Study 2’s VR condition showed significantly higher confusion and lower strangeness. We conclude that Study 1’s participants had reported strangeness rather than confusion and, while virtual storytelling resulted in more confusion, it also resulted in less perceived strangeness of the story. Presence and story experience in the VR+NI and VR+I storytelling scenarios were compared for our second aim. The introductory VE only had an effect for participants who showed a pre-existing interest in hip-hop. In Study 1’s VR+I condition, hip-hop interest was a significant predictor of enjoyment. In Study 2’s VR+I condition, those who identified hip-hop as a favourite music genre showed significantly higher presence than those who identified other genres as a favourite. This suggests that strongly themed introductory VE’s do not benefit virtual storytelling, and that content familiarity and preference interact with VE content to influence virtual experiences. Regarding our third aim; we did not find strong evidence of a relationship between presence and story experience since presence only correlated significantly with interest in Study 1.

Intermediaries are necessary to overcome challenges of Internet use for many users in the developing world. However the need for co-presence with intermediaries can be inconvenient for beneficiaries, and the process is time consuming for intermediaries. We work with an NGO programme called Link which wanted to expose high school students from low income urban communities of Cape Town to Internet career guidance content, but did not have the staff power for regular in-person meetings with all of the students they wanted to reach. We present Internet-supported intermediation, in which intermediaries create a source of content that is tailored to beneficiaries and is accessible using the most appropriate Internet technologies for the context. We discuss the use of two technologies, the web as accessed by conventional computers (preferred by the NGO), and the mobile Internet accessed through low end feature phones. In the target demographic the mobile Internet is very popular for entertainment, especially because of low cost for communication via instant messaging, but the web is more frequently used for tasks outside of entertainment. Using an Action Research approach we implement two Internet systems to support Link intermediation, one a conventional website and the other a text interface suitable for access through mobile instant messaging. We evaluate the systems to determine whether they increase the impact of Link intermediation, and compare the usage of each to determine relative adoption of the technologies for a task outside of entertainment. Students demonstrated capable but slow website use in controlled evaluations, but almost no use occurred outside of our presence. Most students were experienced mobile Internet users, and some began unsolicited use of the mobile system and demonstrated it to their peers. In eight months of simultaneous deployment website users demonstrated minimal engagement, while mobile system users made repeated visits at all hours of the day from varied locations such as homes spread across the city. Students’ most frequent use of computers took place at venues where many users competed, and they prioritised other activities over the website during that access. Mobile use could take place when these restrictions did not apply. The mobile system demonstrated the benefit of Internet support for intermediation: the number of students who viewed career guidance content through it no longer affected the Link team’s effort, while students no longer had to travel to a single meeting place to access content. The consistent higher use of the mobile system than the website shows that the mobile Internet is suitable for non-entertainment use cases by low income urban youth.