Springbok Antidorcas marsupialis ecology was examined on the South African side of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in the Kalahari, with the use of public questionnaires and field forms. Statistically significant differences were found between data that were collected by public respondents and the researcher when using the same questionnaire. Questionnaires are useful for gathering large amounts of data, but should be carefully structured to ensure the quality of the data. Feeding was the most common activity of springbok and the frequency thereof varied during the day and between seasons. Environmental conditions and seasonal changes affected the feeding behaviour of springbok in the southwestern Kalahari. Springbok fed in direct sunlight in the mornings and moved into the shade during the afternoon. More time was spent feeding in the shade during the warmer months than during the colder months, especially under northerly to northeasterly wind directions. Herd sizes were found to increase during the cold-dry season and decreased during the hot-wet season. Springbok and blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus taurinus displayed niche separation by competition avoidance. Springbok utilized natural licks. Night-time observations of springbok were made during different seasons and habitats on the South African side of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in 2003. Nocturnal feeding behaviour was described in the context of other similar studies. Feeding times were highlighted, yet the role and importance of nocturnal feeding remains unclear. The nutritional content of some southwestern Kalahari food plant species were determined. The nutrients in the sampled plants showed a wider fluctuation range than plants in other regions. Phosphorus levels in the Kalahari were found to be low in general and calcium levels were higher than in other regions. Browse species contained higher crude protein levels than grass species. The nutritional value of the plants was lowest during the cold-dry season and highest during the hot-dry one. The nutritional status of springbok in the southwestern Kalahari was assessed by using faecal profiling. The faecal nutritional status for springbok populations in different habitats and seasons was examined. Faecal nutrient levels confirmed springbok as mixed feeders with a diet composition that was between that of true browsers and grazers. Faecal concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen were similar to that of springbok in other areas, but phosphorus intake was shown to be low, particularly during the cold-dry season. Phosphorus appears to be a limiting nutrient and may cause nutritional stress in springbok in the southwestern Kalahari during dry periods. / Dissertation (MSc (Botany))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Plant Science / unrestricted

Contemporary conservation and development understanding in both policy and academic circles espouses that natural resources have a significant contribution to the livelihoods of local people and that knowledge of this can better foster conservation policies that are consistent with livelihood and ecological needs. This thesis is based on research conducted in the southern Kalahari region, South Africa among the San and Mier communities bordering Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. It looks at the importance of natural resources to the San and Mier community groups and ascertains the extent of resource use and its value within broader livelihood portfolios. It also focuses on the cultural values of natural resources and interactions among institutions and actors and how these shape natural resource governance and livelihood outcomes. Overall, natural resources represent an important livelihood source contributing up to 32 % and 9 % of the total income of the San and Mier respectively or up to 46 % and 23 % if livestock incomes are included. However, the dependence on, diversification patterns and distribution of natural resource income vary substantially between and within the two communities. With regards to the cultural values attached to natural resources by the San and Mier, the findings show that these arise from an incredibly diverse and sometimes conflicting array of values that punctuate the two communities’ way of life and they are inextricably linked to resource use. Lastly, governance of natural resources in the co-managed Park and communitymanaged resettlement farms is characterised by complex institutional arrangements, compounded by the existence of multiple actors that have multiple and sometimes conflicting objectives – as shaped by different meanings and interpretations of natural resources. Heightened inter- and intra-community conflicts are common, notably resource use conflicts between the San and Mier and between the San ‘modernist’ and ‘traditionalist’ groups. This demonstrates that the communities’ livelihood dynamics in general and the dependence on natural resources in particular, are closely linked with ecological, economic and social factors including history, culture and present livelihood needs. By exploring the social-environment interactions, the study highlights the complexities and diversity of resource use for livelihoods that should be taken into consideration for both conservation and development policy interventions and research. The main argument of the study is that the contribution of natural resources to local livelihood portfolios in co- and community-managed areas, can be better understood through a consideration of cultural dynamics and institutional arrangements since these condition natural resource access, value and use.

Thesis (MScFor)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Free-ranging lions (Panthera leo) in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) have been subject to persecution by farmers following livestock depredation in adjacent grazing areas. In recent years at least one adult female was killed annually from a sub-population of five boundary prides that have home ranges adjoining these livestock grazing areas. While no long-term records of human-caused mortality are available, the impact of current rates of human-caused mortality is uncertain. Female-based, age-structured models were thus used to estimate the long-term viability of the KTP lion sub-population subjected to human-caused mortality under deterministic and stochastic environmental conditions. Population parameters incorporated in the models included age-class specific natural mortality, female fecundity and birth sex ratio. In so doing sustainable threshold rates of persecution were established, so that effective conservation measures can be taken, if required, to ensure the continued survival of boundary prides in the park. Sensitivity analyses of natural survival rates indicated that adult female survivorship is the most important population parameter with respect to maintaining population viability, compared to younger female age-classes, fecundity or birth sex ratio. Hence adults were also the most sensitive age-class with respect to human-caused mortality, as adult survival repeatedly acts upon individuals with the highest reproductive value. In the deterministic model, with the most optimistic survival parameter values, fecundity and birth sex ratio (female-biased) estimates, the sub-population is only able to sustain an annual persecution of three adult females, before the sub-population exhibits a sustained decline. In the worst-case scenario, where fecundity and sex ratio estimates are at their lower extremes, the maximum sustainable age-class specific persecution rate is zero, for all age-classes. Whilst these hypothetical scenarios are unrealistic, they do highlight the extreme thresholds of potentially sustainable persecution rates. Under the most optimistic scenario using the stochastic model, the highest achievable survival probability of the sub-population, when subjected to a persecution rate of one adult annually, was 78%. Although increased fecundity and birth sex ratio biased towards females may increase the survival probability, these parameters are generally at their mean values in the long-term, and may thus not necessarily prevent a sustained population decline. The models therefore suggest that the current persecution rate of one adult annually (or 4% of the adult sub-population), appears unsustainable in the longterm. To ensure the survival of existing boundary prides and to maintain a viable subpopulation, adult lionesses should, as far as possible, be afforded protection from persecution. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vrylewende leeus (Panthera leo) in die Kgalagadi Oorgrenspark (KTP) is onderworpe aan vervolging deur boere as gevolg van predasie op vee in aangrensende weidingsgebiede. In onlangse jare is ten minste een volwasse wyfie uit ‘n subpopulasie van vyf troppe met loopareas wat aan die weidingsgebiede grens, jaarliks uitgewis. Geen langtermyn rekords van vrektes as gevolg van menslike oorsake is beskikbaar nie, en die impak van vrektes wat deur mense veroorsaak word, is dus onseker. Wyfie-gebaseerde, ouderdomgestruktureerde modelle is daarom gebruik om te voorspel wat die langtermyn lewensvatbaarheid is van die KTP leeu subpopulasie wat onderworpe is aan vrektes deur menslike invloede onder deterministiese en stogastiese omgewingsfaktore. Bevolkingsfaktore wat deur die modelle in ag geneem is, sluit ouderdomsgroep-spesifieke natuurlike vrektes, aanwas van wyfies en geboorte geslagsverhouding in. Sodoende is volhoubare uitwissingstempos bepaal sodat, indien nodig, effektiewe bewaringsmeganismes toegepas kan word om die voortbestaan van troppe in die grensgebiede van die park te verseker. Sensitiwiteitsanalises van natuurlike oorlewingstempos het aangetoon dat volwasse wyfies se oorlewing die belangrikste bevolkingsfaktor is om die bevolking se lewensvatbaarheid te volhou vergeleke met jonger wyfie ouderdomsgroepe, aanwas of geslagsverhouding by geboorte. Daarom was volwassenes ook die sensitiefste vir vrektes as gevolg van menslike invloede, omdat die oorlewing van volwassenes herhaaldelik inwerk op individue met die hoogste reproduktiewe waarde. In die deterministiese model met die mees optimistiese oorlewing, aanwas en geboorte verhouding (wyfie-gebasseerde) beramings, is die subpopulasie slegs in staat om ‘n jaarlikse uitwissing van drie volwasse wyfies te onderhou, voordat die sub-populasie ‘n volgehoue afname toon. In die uiterste geval waar aanwas en geslags verhouding skattings op die laagste is, is die maksimum volhoubare ouderdomsklasspesifieke beramings nul vir alle ouderdomsklasse. Terwyl hierdie hipotetiese senario’s onrealisties is, onderstreep dit die uiterste vlakke van potensiële volhoubare uitwissingstempos. Onder die mees optimistiese senario – ‘n uitwissingstempo van een volwassene jaarliks – met die gebruik van die stogastiese model, was die hoogste haalbare oorlewingswaarskynlikheid van die sub-populasie 78%. Alhoewel ‘n toename in aanwas en geboorte geslagsverhouding (met oorhelling na wyfies), ‘n toename in oorlewingswaarskynlikheid tot gevolg kan hê, is hierdie faktore oor die algemeen gemiddeld oor die langtermyn en sal dit nie noodwendig ‘n volgehoue afname in die populasie verhoed nie. Die modelle dui daarop dat die huidige uitwissingstempo van een volwassene (of 4% van die volwasse sub-populasie) op ‘n jaarlikse grondslag onvolhoubaar is oor die langtermyn. Om die oorlewing van bestaande troppe in die grensgebiede, asook ‘n lewensvatbare subpopulasie, te verseker, moet volwasse leeuwyfies so ver as moontlik teen vervolging beskerm word.

Thesis (MScConEcol (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Previously, conservation activities were mainly focussed upon the establishment of protected areas that safeguarded and shielded the natural world from misuse, often resulting in the forced removal of indigenous communities. In South Africa, the ≠Khomani Bushmen, were one such group forcibly evicted from their homelands. Today, the community has regained access to their ancestral lands in the form of a land claim, settled in 1999, that awarded the community land rights in the form of six farms and land use rights within the now Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP). This gave them the right to use and manage their property falling within the park together with the conservation authority responsible for the Park, South African National Parks (SANParks). This study aims to improve our understanding of the use of resources by the ≠Khomani Bushmen. By obtaining insight on resource use and how knowledge of this use is transferred and shared, information on how to better involve and integrate the community in management processes is generated. The study identified the most important plants currently used within the ≠Khomani community and assessed this use. Additionally, social network analysis (SNA) was used to investigate how the social network structure depicts the distribution of knowledge which affects the community’s ability to manage their natural plant resources effectively. In an ethnobotanical survey, over 90 individuals were interviewed, using semi-structured interviews, on the farms awarded to the community. In total, 59 plant species from 28 families were found to be in use. Medicinal plants were most frequently cited (60%), with edible plants comprising a further 20%. Data was also collected on social relations surrounding the acquisition, generation and transfer of plant use knowledge. The knowledge networks all depict isolated individuals on the periphery and a few individuals loosely connected to central structures. This study demonstrates that wild plant use remains an important practice for the ≠Khomani people, primarily for medicinal purposes. It serves as baseline data on plant resources being used by the community and adds to our understanding of how traditional knowledge is being transmitted. The insight provided by SNA depicts the current distribution of knowledge and should be used by the community, as supported by network weavers and SANParks, to achieve their joint management goals. Network weaving can potentially counteract ecologically unsustainable practices, promoting collaboration and the transfer of traditional ecological knowledge. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Voorheen was bewaringsaktiwiteite meestal gefokus op die vestiging van beskermde areas wat die natuurlike wêreld beveilig en beskerm het van misbruik wat dikwels die gevolg was van die geforseerde verwydering van inheemse gemeenskappe. In Suid-Afrika was die ≠Khomani Boesman groep een van die sodanige groepe wat op ʼn indrukwekkende manier van hulle tuislande uitgesit is. Vandag het die gemeenskap weer toegang gekry tot die land van hulle voorvaders in die indiening van ʼn grond eis wat in 1999 vasgestel is, en wat die gemeenskap grond regte toegeken het in die vorm van ses plase en grond regtelike gebruik binne die sogenoemde Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP). Dit het hulle die reg gegee tot die gebruik en bestuur van hulle eiendom wat binne die park val saam met die bewaringsowerhede wat verantwoordelik is vir die Park, Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Parke (SANParks). Die doel van hierdie studie is om ons begrip te verbeter van die gebruik van hulpbronne deur die ≠Khomani Boesman. Met die verkryging van insig oor hulpbron gebruik en hoe die kennis van hierdie gebruik oorgedra en gedeel word, is inligting oor hoe om ʼn beter betrekking en integrering van die gemeenskap in die bestuursprosesse gegenereer. Die studie het die belangrikste plante geïdentifiseer wat tans gebruik word binne die ≠Khomani gemeenskap met die doel om die gebruik van hierdie plante te assesseer. Sosiale netwerkanalise (SNA) is addisioneel gebruik om ondersoek in te stel oor hoe sosiale netwerk struktuur die verspreiding van kennis uitbeeld wat die gemeenskap se vermoë om hulle natuurlike plant hulpbronne effektief te bestuur affekteer. In ʼn etnobotaniese opname, was oor 90 individuele ondervra op die plase wat aan die gemeenskap toegeken was, met die gebruik van semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude. Dit is gevind dat in totaal 59 plant spesies uit 28 families gebruik word. Medisinale plante was meer dikwels aangehaal (60%) met eetbare plante bestaande uit 20%. Data was ook versamel oor sosiale verwantskappe omringende die verkryging, generering en oordra van kennis in die gebruik van plante. Hierdie netwerk van kennis word alles uitgebeeld in geïsoleerde individue op die periferie en ʼn paar individue wat losweg verbonde is tot sentrale strukture. Hierdie studie identifiseer dat die gebruik van wildeplante ʼn belangrike praktyk bly vir die ≠Khomani mense, hoofsaaklik vir medisinale doeleindes. Dit dien as basis inligting van plant hulpbronne wat tans gebruik word deur die gemeenskap en wat by ons begrip gevoeg word oor hoe tradisionele kennis oorgedra word. Die insig wat deur SNA voorsien word beeld die huidige verspreiding van kennis uit, wat deur die gemeenskap gebruik moet word, as ondersteuning van “network weavers” en SANParks om hulle gesamentlike bestuur doelwitte te bereik. “Network weavers” kan potensieel ekologiese onvolhoubare praktyke teenwerk, wat die samewerking en die oordra van tradisionele ekologiese kennis bevorder.

Please read the abstract in the section 00front of this document / Dissertation (MSc (Wildlife Management))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Centre for Wildlife Management / unrestricted