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This dissertation examines Muslim politics in the North-West Frontier Province of India between 1937 and 1947. It first investigates the nature of modern politics in the Frontier Province and its relationship with all-India politics. The N-WFP was the only Muslim majority province which supported the INC in its struggle to represent an Indian nation against the British raj, rather than of joining other Muslims in the AIML. The N-WFP had its own peculiar type of society, distinct from the rest of India. In the Frontier Province, Islam wa? iaierwoven to such an extent with Pashtoon society that it formed an essential and integral part of it; and the Pashtoons 1 sense of separate ethnic identity, within the bounds and framework of Islam, become an acknowledged fact. In this Muslim majority province, there was no fear of Hindu domination, as was prevalent among Muslims in Hindu majority provinces. This was a principal reason for the initial failure of ML to acquire support in the FP. The study also explores the rise of the Khudai Khidmatgars and the reasons for the preference of majority of the N-WFP Muslims for Congress. It argues that the coming together of the KKs and the Congress gave the former popularity, and an ally in all-India politics and the latter a significant base of support in a Muslim majority province. It elucidates the changing political contexts of the period 1937-47 and shows how loyalties were contingent on these circumstances. It is therefore not just about Frontier politics, but, at a deeper level, about the nature of evolving political identities in the sub-continent. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the All-India National Congress 'desertion' of the Frontier people on the eve of partition, the dismissal of the provincial Congress ministry by Jinnah, and the deeply ambiguous positions of the KKs in the context of the new nation of Pakistan.

Parks and protected areas are long-regarded as effective measures for conservation of biodiversity. More recently, they are also recognized as a means to provide social and economic benefits and indefinite ecological and environmental services, particularly to local communities. Historically, parks and protected areas have been managed through an exclusive model, whereby local communities are regarded as a threat to biodiversity preservation. More recently, this model is being replaced by an inclusive model which regards local communities as important stakeholders and partners in sustainable resource management. Like other developing countries of the world, Pakistan is switching to the inclusive model, mostly under the influence and pressure of the world community and external donors. This thesis focuses on the Ayubia National Park (ANP) in Pakistan. This park is managed by the provincial government of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province through the Wildlife Department. At the same time, the park falls within the jurisdiction of the Forest Department by virtue of its being located within reserve forest. Until 1996, the traditional exclusive conservation model was predominant. Under the influence of the European Union (EU) and IUCN – The World Conservation Union – the inclusive approach has been tested in the park since 1996. Accordingly, the first park management plan was prepared with the active collaboration of all local communities, the WWF-Pakistan, and the Forest and Wildlife Departments. The planning document was designed to promote co-management and incorporate the viewpoints of all the local communities in park management. Following termination of EU funding, the plan was implemented, but without active involvement of the local communities. Evidence presented in this thesis shows that, due to strict management in line with the traditional exclusive conservation model, park resources have improved to a certain extent. However, failure in implementing the mutually agreed planning document has resulted in local communities developing serious mistrust against the Wildlife Department. This thesis suggests that short-term improvements in park resources mask the persistent problems of poor governance in the study area. The thesis shows that marked differences between the Forest and Wildlife Departments, and between local communities and the concerned government agencies provide a poor foundation for long-term sustainable resource management. Thus ineffective governance lies at the heart of resource management problems within the park. The thesis recommends that in order to effectively address the current park-people conflicts a state-centric co-management model should be pursued. Such a hybrid model will have the strengths of both the exclusive and inclusive models. The thesis further presents a framework focusing on effective environmental governance, effective management and effective planning. Importantly, the thesis argues that for effective environmental governance to be realized, the management approach must be place-based and site-specific. Thus, the thesis recommends both micro and macro level environmental governance measures. Such measures can be undertaken through proper institutional reforms that are undertaken at three distinct levels: legislative reforms, educational reforms and organizational reforms.

Parks and protected areas are long-regarded as effective measures for conservation of biodiversity. More recently, they are also recognized as a means to provide social and economic benefits and indefinite ecological and environmental services, particularly to local communities. Historically, parks and protected areas have been managed through an exclusive model, whereby local communities are regarded as a threat to biodiversity preservation. More recently, this model is being replaced by an inclusive model which regards local communities as important stakeholders and partners in sustainable resource management. Like other developing countries of the world, Pakistan is switching to the inclusive model, mostly under the influence and pressure of the world community and external donors. This thesis focuses on the Ayubia National Park (ANP) in Pakistan. This park is managed by the provincial government of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province through the Wildlife Department. At the same time, the park falls within the jurisdiction of the Forest Department by virtue of its being located within reserve forest. Until 1996, the traditional exclusive conservation model was predominant. Under the influence of the European Union (EU) and IUCN – The World Conservation Union – the inclusive approach has been tested in the park since 1996. Accordingly, the first park management plan was prepared with the active collaboration of all local communities, the WWF-Pakistan, and the Forest and Wildlife Departments. The planning document was designed to promote co-management and incorporate the viewpoints of all the local communities in park management. Following termination of EU funding, the plan was implemented, but without active involvement of the local communities. Evidence presented in this thesis shows that, due to strict management in line with the traditional exclusive conservation model, park resources have improved to a certain extent. However, failure in implementing the mutually agreed planning document has resulted in local communities developing serious mistrust against the Wildlife Department. This thesis suggests that short-term improvements in park resources mask the persistent problems of poor governance in the study area. The thesis shows that marked differences between the Forest and Wildlife Departments, and between local communities and the concerned government agencies provide a poor foundation for long-term sustainable resource management. Thus ineffective governance lies at the heart of resource management problems within the park. The thesis recommends that in order to effectively address the current park-people conflicts a state-centric co-management model should be pursued. Such a hybrid model will have the strengths of both the exclusive and inclusive models. The thesis further presents a framework focusing on effective environmental governance, effective management and effective planning. Importantly, the thesis argues that for effective environmental governance to be realized, the management approach must be place-based and site-specific. Thus, the thesis recommends both micro and macro level environmental governance measures. Such measures can be undertaken through proper institutional reforms that are undertaken at three distinct levels: legislative reforms, educational reforms and organizational reforms.

Militancy inspired by Islamists is escalating globally, and government action is necessary to protect vulnerable populations. Security professionals generally agree that governance may complement the use of force to defeat militants; however, current doctrine does not address the concurrent integration of governance in a comprehensive strategy. This interpretive case study explored Pakistan's application of governance during the 2009 Khyber operation in Swat Valley, code-named Operation Rah-e-Rast. The central research question focused on how governance activities were integrated with military operations to subdue militancy. Data were collected through interviews with 6 planners, Pakistani secondary source survey data, and government artifacts. Data were inductively coded using a progressive axial coding process and validated through methodological triangulation. Data were then analyzed using a case study analytical model, grounded in neo-Clausewitzian theoretical principles, to derive key themes. Key findings indicate that an interministry collaborative approach to regain the public trust was more effective in placating violence than was solely using military action. Sound governance, enabled by strategic communications and intelligence, fostered tribal relationships that promoted confidence and undermined the militant support base. The civil-military planning protocols were successful, but mainly ad-hoc and suboptimized. Formal training, standing civil-military planning forums, and planning process improvements stemming from the Pakistan experience could instill social change by assisting national leaders in developing a cogent countermilitancy strategy to defeat the global Islamist movement.

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (31 ° 49'N, 70 ° 55'E bis 35 ° 50'N, 71 ° 47'E) liegt im Nordwesten Pakistans im Süden Asiens. Das Hindukusch-Gebirge in Afghanistan liegt im Westen, dem indischen Himalaya im Nordosten und die Karakorum Berge südlich vom tibetischen Hochland auf der Nordseite. Diese Arbeit besteht überwiegend aus drei separaten Studien entlang eines 200 km langen Transekts mit einem Höhengradienten ausgehend von den Sedimentbecken im Peshawar Tal (275 m ü.M.) bis hinauf zu den Malam Jabba Hills im Swat-Tal (2600 m ü.M.). Die erste Studie, die auf einer Datengrundlage von 160 Poaceae Arten beruht, zeigt Trends, dass polyploide C3- und C4-Poaceae-Arten größere Pollenkkörner als die jeweiligen diploiden Arten haben. In diesem Datensatz haben alle C4-Arten größere Pollenkörner als die C3-Arten. Ob Grassländer von C3 oder C4 Arten dominiert werden kann in verschiedenen Regionen und Lebensräumen durch die Untersuchung der Muster des Trends von zu- oder abnehmenden Pollenkorngrößen ermittelt werden. In unserem Datensatz ist Polyploidie bei C4-Gräsern häufiger als bei den C3 Arten. Die verwendete Methode kann auf Poaceae-Pollenkörner in Umweltarchiven angewendet werden, um das Klima der Vergangenheit zu rekonstruieren und die Dynamik der früheren Graslandökosysteme zu bewerten. Dieser Ansatz wird nicht nur bei laufenden paläoökologischen Studien helfen aufzuklären, wie die Änderungen der Vegetations-zusammensetzung und die Veränderungen in Biomen vergangener Graslandökosysteme zu entschlüsseln sind, sondern auch nützliche Erkenntnisse für die Vorhersage zukünftiger Entwicklungen ermöglichen. Die zweite Studie befasst sich mit modernen Pollenspektren aus Oberflächenproben und ihre Beziehung zu der umgebenden Vegetation, die nützliche Daten für die Interpretation von holozänen Pollenprofilen bietet. Dabei konnten entlang eines 200 km langen Höhengradienten vier verschiedene Höhenstufen unterschieden werden, wo die dominierenden Pflanzenfamilien, Poaceae, Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Verbenaceae, Acanthaceae und Euphorbiaceae eine signifikante Korrelation mit dem gefunden Pollenniederschlag hatten, während sich bei anderen Familien, den Boraginaceae, Saxifragaceae, Apiaceae, Balsaminaceae und Rubiaceae große Unterschiede zu der zugehörigen Vegetationszusammensetzung ergaben. Für die Kalibrierung und Interpretation fossiler Pollendaten sollte also immer auch die aktuellen Beziehungen von Pollenniederschlag und Vegetationsdaten zumindest auf der Familienebene berücksichtigt werden. Die dritte Studie befasst sich mit einem Pollenprofil aus der Kabal Swat-Region, welches eine detaillierte Geschichte der Vegetation und des Klimas des Hindukuschs der letzten 3300 Jahre, also dem späten Holozäns enthält. Von 3300 bis 2400 cal BP, war eine subtropische semiaride krautige Vegetation hauptsächlich durch Cyperaceae- und Poaceae-Arten vertreten. Sie wurde ersetzt von gemischten Nadelwäldern mit Taxus, Pinus, sowie Juglans, Poaceae und Cyperaceae während der Zeit von 2400 bis 900 cal BP, was auf eine vergleichsweise moderate Klimaschwankung während des späten Holozäns weist. Der Rückgang der Poaceae von 2400 bis1500 cal BP und eine erneute Zunahme von 1500 bis 1200 cal BP Jahre zeigen, dass das Kabal Swat nass-kühlere und trocken-wärmere Phasen durchmachte. Nadelbäume in den gemischten Nadelwäldern treten heute bei größeren Höhe im alpinen Bereich auf. Weitere hochauflösende holozäne Pollenprofile des Hindukusch sind notwendig, um einen ausführlicheren Vergleich zu anderen süd- und zentralasiatischen Paläo-Archiven zu ermöglichen, die auch ein detaillierteres und anwendbares Wissen für Management und Naturschutzfragen ergeben.