Master of Science

The primary soil limitations to crop yield in the Senegalese "Peanut Basin" include salinity, acidity, and fertility. Crop yield may be increased by use of soil amendments and salt-tolerant cultivars. Objectives of this research were to evaluate salt tolerance of various millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.) cultivars and compare effects of soil amendments on millet growth and yield in greenhouse and field studies. The research included two greenhouse experiments (i) comparing the salt tolerance of seven pearl millet cultivars (IBMV 8402, SOSAT C88, ICMV-IS 88102, IKMP1, IKMP2, IKMV 8201 and GAWANE) using five levels of electrical conductivity (0.3. 2.1, 4.2, 5.2 and 6.3 dS m-1) and (ii) assessing SOSAT C88 responses to various organic (compost and peanut shells) and inorganic (phosphogypsum; PG) amendments in manufactured saline soils (4.2 dSm-1); and (iii) a two-year (2014-2015) field experiment in Senegal evaluating the effects of local organic amendments (peanut shells and compost) on the responses of three millet cultivars (SOSAT C88, GAWANE and IBMV 8402) under low and high soil salinity. Cultivars SOSAT C88 and IBMV 8402 performed best in saline greenhouse media. The soil amendments that elicited the best millet plant responses in the greenhouse experiment were yard waste compost and peanut shells. Phosphogypsum exacerbated salinity effects by increasing electrical conductivity. In the field study, there were no differences among treatments. Cultivars IBMV 8402 and SOSAT C88 could be cultivated in saline soils amended with peanut shells. / Master of Science

Lime-cement columns were constructed to improve soft ground at the I-95/Route 1 Interchange in Alexandria, Virginia. As part of the test embankment program, two different commercial laboratories performed laboratory tests on treated soil, and they produced strikingly different unconfined compression test results. Further, both sets of results are different from test results for similar soils available in the published literature. This situation created uncertainties and a conservative design philosophy, accompanied by increased construction costs compared to typical lime-cement column projects. The goals of this research project were to assess factors that influence strength gain of lime-cement-soil mixtures and to develop a detailed laboratory test procedure that produces consistent results. Key findings from the research are that a laboratory test procedure that produces consistent results has been developed, drying and subsequent restoration of soil moisture prior to treatment can decrease the strength of the mixture, the mixture strength decreases as the ratio of soil water content to cement content increases for 100 percent cement-soil mixtures, the addition of lime can increase the mixture strength for some soils and decrease the strength for others, and presenting the test results in the form of contour plots of unconfined compressive strength can be very useful. / Master of Science

This project was an attempt to deter:nine haw the plasticity of clays and limes, as determined by the Whittemore Plasticimeter, varied over a range of water contents. The performance tests showed that the Plasticity Figure depends on the load applied to the shaft and on the size of the sphere. Furthermore the position of the zero-setting has an important effect on the results of a test. For one clay body, containing Tenn. Ball no. 5, there was a plastic range, at the working consistency of the clay, within which the Plasticity Figure remained constant. For another clay body, containing Challenger Ball, the Plasticity Figure decreased at a steady rate with increase in water content. For both clay bodies the one minute travel was found to be approximately proportional to the water of plasticity. The plasticimeter was found to be applicable to testing limes providing all the load was removed. Two Ohio Whites and one mason's hydrate were tested. In general, the Plasticity Figure was inversely proportional to, and the one minute travel directly proportional to the water content. The Ohio Whites required 15 per cent less water to reach the testing consistency than the ma.son's hydrate, and had Plasticity Figures, at that point, twice as great. A variety of clays were tested and Plasticity Figures obtained for both de-aired samples and those not de-aired. The results of typical tests were expressed on a flow diagram. / M.S.

The presence of Ca(OH)2 (or free lime) in lime mud can cause many problems in the recovery process of kraft pulp mills. Conventional free lime analyses require extensive laboratory work and give inconsistent results. A systematic study was performed to determine if zeta potential, a quickly measurable dispersion characteristic, can be used to indicate the presence of free lime in the recovery process. Measurements were made on synthetic wet lime mud to simulate samples collected after the white liquor clarifier in pulp mills. The results show that zeta potential increases from negative to positive when the free lime content in the lime mud exceeds a critical threshold. This change from negative to positive zeta potential of the lime mud slurry can be used as a basis for developing an on-line monitoring system that effectively detects free lime in the lime mud in order to avoid problems associated with overliming in the recovery process.

The inclusion of lime in burials is observed in historical and archaeological records, in contemporary mass graves and forensic cases. Clearly there are controversies within the literature and there is a general misconception of the effects of lime on decomposition. Recent casework in Belgium and the UK involving the search for human remains buried with lime, have demonstrated the need for a more detailed understanding of the effect of different types of lime on cadaver decomposition and its micro-environment. Field and laboratory experiments using pigs as human body analogues were undertaken to obtain a better understanding of the taphonomic processes that govern lime burials. The changes observed in the experiments were related back to archaeological parallels in which white residues have been found. The combined results of these studies demonstrate that despite conflicting evidence in the literature, hydrated lime and quicklime both delay the initial stages of the decay process but do not arrest it completely. The end result is ultimately the same: skeletonisation. Furthermore this study stresses the importance of the specific microenvironment in taphonomic research and highlights the need for chemical analysis of white residues when encountered in a burial. Not all white powder is lime. White residue could be identified as calcium carbonate, building material, body decomposition products, minerals or degraded lead. This study has implications for the investigation of clandestine burials and for a better understanding of archaeological plaster burials. Knowledge of the effects of lime on decomposition processes also have bearing on practices involving the disposal of animal carcasses and potentially the management of mass graves and mass disasters by humanitarian organisation and DVI teams.

Vidros comerciais de base silicato do tipo sodo-cálcico, apresentam coloração pela presença de óxidos de metais de transição, tais como ferro e cobalto, ou pela presença de elementos não-metálicos, tais como o selênio. Geralmente, a presença de selênio metálico (Se°) num vidro silicato confere-lhe a cor rosa (depende de seu estado de oxidação). Desse modo, industrialmente, adiciona-se selênio à composição de vidros quando se deseja produzir vidros róseos ou, mais freqüentemente, quando se deseja mascarar a cor esverdeada conferida pela presença de ferro, o principal contaminante das matérias-primas naturais. Entretanto, o selênio é encontrado em pequenas quantidades na natureza, daí seu alto custo. Além disso, da quantidade inicial de selênio colocada na composição de vidros industriais sodo-cálcicos, quase 80% são vaporizados durante a etapa de fusão do vidro. Este trabalho é dedicado ao estudo do efeito da adição de diferentes compostos portadores de selênio como matéria-prima em substituição ao selênio metálico, visando a redução da volatilização de selênio durante a fusão. Além do selênio metálico, foram utilizados selenitos de sódio, de bário, de zinco e de ferro. Os vidros foram obtidos por fusões em escala de laboratório, em cadinhos de alta alumina, a 1500°C, em forno elétrico. A seguir determinou-se a composição química de cada vidro obtido, por fluorescência de raios X e sua cor, através da determinação de suas coordenadas cromáticas no sistema CIEL*a*b*. A análise dos resultados teve como principal conclusão que a concentração final de selênio no vidro é função apenas de sua quantidade no banho, independentemente do composto químico que lhe forneceu. / Commercial silicate glasses of the soda-lime system attain color by the presence of transition metal oxides, such as iron and cobalt, or by the presence of non-metallic elements, like selenium. Usually, the presence of metallic selenium (Se°) in a silicate glass results in a light pink coloration (depends on its oxidation state). Therefore, industrially, selenium is added to a glass composition when the objective is to obtain a pink color glass, or, more often, when the objective is to mask the greenish coloration resultant from the presence of iron, the most usual contaminant in the natural raw-materials. However, selenium occurs in the nature only in small quantities. Besides, from the initial selenium added to industrial soda-lime batch compositions, almost 80% volatilize during melting. This work is dedicated to the study of the effect of adding selenium from different raw-materials, substituting for the metallic selenium, with the principal objective of reducing the loss of this element during glass melting. Along with metallic selenium, sodium, barium, zinc, and iron selenites were employed. The glasses were obtained in laboratory scale meltings in alumina crucibles, at 1500°C, in an electrical furnace. After that, the chemical composition of each glass was obtained by X-ray fluorescence, and its color was measured according to the chromatic coordinates in the CIEL*a*b* method. The main conclusion that can be drawn from the analysis of the results is that the selenium concentration in the final glass is a function only of the quantity of selenium present in the melt, independently of the chemical compound which supplied such selenium.

O progresso científico e tecnológico das últimas décadas registra um avanço significativo no processo de obtenção da cal, porém, há uma lacuna de conhecimento de base referente à sua ação quando empregada em conjunto com o cimento Portland. O uso da cal nas argamassas mistas de acabamento tem sido associado positivamente apenas à plasticidade no estado fresco e à sua deformabilidade no estado endurecido. Maiores informações são necessárias sobre a ação da cal na evolução das propriedades da argamassa no estado fresco, vinculadas à hidratação do cimento. Este conhecimento é importante para o desenvolvimento de formulações que atendam ao desempenho desejado em diferentes aplicações. O entendimento do mecanismo de hidratação do cimento em presença da cal constitui uma plataforma para estudos de adições minerais ativas ao clínquer, com adição de cal hidratada como fonte externa de cálcio, na produção de novos materiais cimentícios sustentáveis. O estudo em pasta realizado teve como foco a interação cimento-cal visando identificar os fenômenos químicos e físicos relevantes que se sucedem à adição de água ao sistema. Foram caracterizadas as idades iniciais de hidratação do cimento por meio de ensaios de calorimetria de condução, termogravimetria (TG/DTG) e difratometria de raios X em material no estado fluido e em regime consecutivo de coleta de dados. Os experimentos envolveram as proporções 1:1 e 1:2 de cimento Portland tipo CP II E com cales hidratadas tipos CH I e CH III de natureza cálcica e dolomítica, respectivamente. A cal CH I incorpora à mistura elevado teor de hidróxido de cálcio com imediata saturação do meio por íons hidroxila e íons cálcio; a cal CH III incorpora também, em maior quantidade, filler carbonático. Por efeito químico, devido à presença da cal, há alteração da velocidade de hidratação, mas com formação dos produtos de reação característicos da hidratação do cimento. Por efeito físico, o filler carbonático e a fração insolúvel do hidróxido de cálcio da cal, presente no meio saturado, atuam como nucleador para precipitação de fases hidratadas. O efeito combinado desses fenômenos promoveu aceleração da hidratação do cimento Portland, principalmente no período de indução, quando prevalecem as reações de formação de etringita e de aluminatos de cálcio hidratados. / In the last decades, scientific and technological progress has shown a significant advance in the process of obtaining lime; however, there is gap knowledge with relation to its action when employed together with Portland cement. The use of lime in finishing mix mortars has only been positively associated to the fresh state plasticity and ability to deformation in the hardened state. It is necessary to collect data about the role of lime in the gradual development of the properties of mortars in the fresh state, linked to cement hydration. Such knowledge is important to develop formulas which can meet the required performance in different uses. The current demand of sustainable materials has favored the addition of minerals to the composition of Portland cement, and hydrated lime as an extern source of calcium, is a feasible alternative to the composition of byproducts and mixtures to be used as alternative binders. This research focused the cement-lime interaction aiming at identifying relevant chemical and physical phenomena which succeed the addition of water to the system. The paste study characterized the early ages of hydration by means of isothermal calorimetric, thermogravimetric, X-ray diffraction in material in the fluid state analysis collecting data in a consecutive basis. The experiments were carried out by using two proportions of Portland cement type CP II E with hydrated lime types CH I and CH III, calcic and dolomitc, respectively. By adding lime CH I to the cement-water system, calcium hydroxide is abundantly incorporated, with immediate saturation by means of hydroxide ions and calcium ions. The addition of lime CH III, also incorporates, in greater amount, finely ground limestone. Due to chemical effect because of the presence of lime, there is alteration in speed of hydration, forming products characteristics to the cement hydration process. Due to physical effect, the filler and the lime insoluble fraction of calcium hydroxide, present in the saturated environment, work as facilitators to the precipitation of the hydrated phases. The combined effect of these two phenomena accelerated hydration of Portland cement, mainly in the induction period, when ettringite and hydrated calcium aluminates formation reactions prevail. The advancement made in terms of knowledge permits to broaden comprehension on the behavior of mixtures in early stages, when hardening and consolidation processes are applied to mortars and help rheologic studies which involve their application. The understanding of the hydration mechanism in the presence of lime sets a base to study additions of active minerals to the clinker and produce new sustainable cementious compounds.

O emprego de resíduos da indústria como materiais alternativos na Engenharia vem sendo tópico recorrente em pesquisas de desenvolvimento de novos materiais, devido a uma maior consciência da opinião pública quanto ao impacto ambiental oriundo da produção industrial. Buscando colaborar com esta discussão, esta pesquisa procurou inserir dois resíduos (cinza volante e cal de carbureto), gerados na região metropolitana de Porto Alegre, como alternativa de solução em Engenharia. Analisando-se a microestrutura da cinza volante, observa-se que ela é formada por esferas ocas e plerosferas (esferas ocas preenchidas por esferas menores). Foi estudado o ganho de resistência da mistura promovido pela moagem da cinza volante em um moinho de bolas cerâmicas, visando uma potencialização da reatividade do material. A fim de possibilitar a utilização destes resíduos, é necessário um estudo do seu comportamento mecânico decorrente da cimentação proporcionada pela mistura e compactação destes materiais. A presente pesquisa busca fornecer subsídios para que seja possível determinar o seu comportamento, através do uso da relação porosidade (η)/teor volumétrico de cal (LV) obtidas a partir da identificação e quantificação das variáveis mais importantes no controle da resistência da mistura dos dois resíduos, com e sem o processo de moagem da cinza, levando a formulação de equações para previsão da resistência à compressão simples do material cimentado para cinza volante com diferentes tempos de moagem e cura acelerada. Para isso, foram realizados ensaios de compressão simples em corpos de prova com 5, 10 e 15% de cal, com peso específico aparente seco de 11, 12 e 13 kN/m3, curados por 7 dias, com umidade de 18% para os tempos de moagem 0, 2 e 6h nas temperaturas 23 e 40°C, e 0 e 6h a 60°C. Os resultados apontam que o aumento do teor de cal gerou ganhos de resistência para as maiores temperaturas de cura; a diminuição da porosidade proporcionou um ganho de resistência para todas as combinações; o aumento da temperatura foi importante no ganho de resistência entre 23oC e 40oC; a moagem da cinza por 2h promoveu ganhos significativos de resistência em relação à não moída, porém, para 6h de moagem os ganhos não foram significativos para as temperaturas de cura de 23oC e 60oC. A relação η/LV, ajustada por um expoente [η/(Lv)0,07], mostrou-se adequada na formulação de equações na previsão da resistência do material cimentado para todas as temperaturas e tempos de moagem estudados. Além disso, a existência de relações únicas e distintas no controle da resistência à compressão simples em função da porosidade, teor volumétrico de cal, temperatura de cura e tempo de moagem, mostraram-se úteis para formulações de dosagem. Os resultados foram submetidos à análise de variância que comprovou que todos os fatores controláveis escolhidos para o experimento são significativos, assim como todas suas interações. / The use of industry by-products as alternative materials in Engineering has been a recurring topic of research in development of new materials, mainly, due to a larger public conscience regarding the environmental impact of industrial production of waste. Aiming to contribute on this discussion, this research sought to introduce two by-products (fly ash and carbide lime), produced on the metropolitan area of Porto Alegre, as an alternative Engineering solution. Analyzing the microstructure of the fly ash, it is observed that it is composed by void spheres and plerospheres (void spheres filed with smaller ones). Having that in mind, it was studied the admix strength gain promoted by the grinding of de fly ash on a ceramic ball mill, aiming an enhancement of the reactivity of the material. In order to enable the use of these byproducts, it is necessary the study of its mechanical behavior due to the cementation provided by the mixture and compaction of these materials. The current research seeks to provide subsides in order to determine its behavior, through the use of the ratio porosity (η)/ volumetric lime content (LV), obtained from the identification and quantification of the most important variables on the control of the strength of the admixes of both by-products, with or without the process of fly ash grinding. This means, the formulation of equations for the simple compressive strength forecast of the cemented material for the fly ash with different grinding times and accelerated curing temperature. In order to do so, it were realized simple compression tests with 5, 10 and 15% of lime, with a specific dry unit weight of 11, 12 and 13 kN/m3, cured for 7 days, with water content of 18% for the grinding times of 0, 2 and 6h to the curing temperatures of 23 and 40oC, and 0 and 6h to 60oC. The results show that, the increase of lime content provided strength gains for the higher temperatures; the decrease of porosity generated strength gain to all the combinations; the increase in curing temperature was important on the strength gain between 23oC and 40oC; the grinding of fly ash for 2h promoted significant strength gains when compared to the not ground samples, however, for 6h of grinding the strength gain wasn’t significant for the 23oC and 60oC curing temperatures. The η/LV ratio, adjusted by an exponent [η/(LV)0,07], presented itself adequate for the formulation of the equations for the forecast of the strength gain of the cemented material to all the studied temperatures and grinding times. Besides that, the existence of unique and distinct relationships on the control of the simple compression strength depending on the porosity, volumetric lime content, curing temperature and grinding time, have been shown useful for the dosage formulation. The results were submitted to variance analysis, which demonstrated that all the factors chosen on the experiment were significant, as all their interactions.

A abordagem do comportamento hidráulico associado ao comportamento mecânico de um material é de extrema importância. A técnica de tratamento de solos com cal vem sendo empregada com sucesso na engenharia geotécnica, melhorando as características do solo, que por ser um material complexo e variável nem sempre satisfaz as necessidades requeridas para um projeto. Nesse sentido, este estudo tem por objetivo quantificar a influência da quantidade de cal e da porosidade sobre o comportamento hidráulico e mecânico de um solo residual tratado com cal, verificando a adequação do uso da relação vazios/cal na estimativa da condutividade hidráulica, da resistência à compressão simples (qu) e da resistência à tração (qt). Para isso, foram realizados ensaios de condutividade hidráulica e de resistência para corpos de prova com 5%, 7% e 9% de cal, com peso específico aparente seco de 16,0 kN/m³, 17,2 kN/m³ e 18,5 kN/m³, curados por 28 dias. Foi observado que a porosidade da mistura é um parâmetro de influência sobre a condutividade hidráulica medida. Ambas as resistências, à compressão simples e à tração por compressão diametral, aumentaram potencialmente com a redução da porosidade. Verificou-se uma única relação qt/qu igual a 0,13, sendo independente da relação vazios/cal. A metodologia proposta por Consoli (2014), mostrou-se adequada para a determinação dos parâmetros de resistência (intercepto coesivo e ângulo de atrito) para uma relação [n/(Liv)0,12=35. A relação vazios/cal, definida pela razão entre a porosidade da mistura compactada e o teor volumétrico de cal, ajustado por uma potência, demonstrou ser um parâmetro eficaz na estimativa do comportamento hidráulico e mecânico do solo-cal estudado. / The approach of the hydraulic behavior associated with the mechanical behavior of a material is of utmost importance. The technique of treating soil with lime has been used successfully in geotechnical engineering, improving the characteristics of the soil, which is a highly variable and complex material, and does not always meet the required needs. In that sense, this study has for objective to quantify the influence of amounts of lime and of the porosity on the hydraulic and mechanical behavior a sandy silt soil stabilized with lime, checking the suitability of the use de voids/ lime ratio in estimating of the hydraulic conductivity, unconfined compression strength (qu) and tensile strength (qt). For that, number of hydraulic conductivity tests and strength tests were carried out for soil-hydrated lime blends, with lime contents of 5%, 7% e 9%, dry unit weight of 16,0 kN/m³, 17,2 kN/m³ and 18,5 kN/m³, 28 days as curing time. It was observed that the porosity of the mixture is a parameter influence on the hydraulic conductivity measured. The results show the unconfined compressive and the splitting tensile strength increasing potentially with the reduction of its porosity. It was found a single qt/qu relationship equal to 0,13, being independent of the porosity/lime ratio. The methodology suggested by Consoli (2014), was adequate for determining of Mohr-Coulomb failure parameters (effective cohesion intercept effective angle of shearing resistance) for a ratio [n/(Liv)0,12=35. The voids/lime ratio, defined as the ratio between the porosity of the compacted mixture and volumetric lime content, adjusted by a power, demonstrated to be the most appropriate parameter to assess the hydraulic and mechanical behavior of the soil-lime mixture studied.