M.Sc. / The Central Zone of the Limpopo Complex displays two major structural features: the roughly east-west oriented Tshipise Straightening Zone Paleoproterozoic in age and a “Cross Folded Zone” to the north of the Straightening Zone comprising large-scale sheath and cross folds suggested to have developed during a Late- Archaean high grade tectono-metamorphic event. This study presents and discusses structural-metamorphic data showing that two closely associated folds (Ga-Tshanzi and Campbell) in the eastern part of the Cross Folded Zone near Musina, record different structural and metamorphic histories that may be applied to the evolution of the entire Central Zone of the Limpopo Complex. The Ga-Tshanzi structure has an ovate-shaped closed outcrop pattern approximately 4km long, and 3km wide with the long axis of the fold pattern oriented in a westerly direction. The fold geometry, characterized by a central fold axis that plunges steeply to the SSW, is very similar to other closed folds in the Central Zone previously interpreted as sheath folds. The Ga-Tshanzi fold deforms rocks of the Beit Bridge Complex (calc-silicate, metaquartzite, metapelite and magnetite quartzite and quartzofeldspathic Singelele Gneiss), and members of the Messina Layered Suite. The ovate structure is characterised by a gneissic fabric comprising peak metamorphic mineral assemblages. This regional gneissic fabric that occurs throughout the Central Zone also defines the shape of the neighbouring Campbell fold. Mineral lineations and fold hinges in the Ga-Tshanzi fold mainly present within metaquartzites and calc-silicates, plunge steeply to the southwest, parallel to its central fold axis indicating a NNE-SSW transport direction during fold formation. A decompression-cooling P-T path calculated for metapelitic gneisses from the Ga-Tshanzi fold shows that the closed fold developed under high-grade, deep crustal conditions. Peak P-T conditions of 7.5kbar/799ºC were followed by decompression and cooling down to 5.23kbar/605ºC. Water activity during this event was low, ranging from 0.122 at peak conditions, and decreasing to 0.037 at the minimum calculated conditions. The Ga-Tshanzi closed fold and the closely associated Campbell cross fold were thus formed at deep crustal levels and partially exhumed along a similar decompression-cooling P-T path to mid-crustal levels during the early orogenic event. The Campbell fold, described as a cross fold in the literature, is approximately 15km long and has a V shaped outcrop pattern that tapers from 12km in the southeast to 2 km in the northwest. This fold is developed in lithologies similar to those of the Ga-Tshanzi fold as well as in Sand River Gneisses. It has a near isoclinal fold geometry with both limbs dipping towards the southwest and a fold axis that plunges moderately to the west-southwest. This fold, that is interpreted to have developed during the same deformational event as the Ga-Tshansi structure has, however, subsequently been affected at mid- to upper crustal levels by shear movement along the Tshipise Straightening Zone displaying widespread development of younger planar and linear structural features. Planar features include north-south-trending high temperature shear zones that crosscut the regional fabric and flexural slip planes particularly evident in quartzites. Linear features from the Campbell fold that are mainly developed in younger shear and flexural slip planes, indicate, in contrast to the Ga-Tshanzi fold, an ENE-WSW directed crustal movement that is in accordance with the sense of movement suggested for the Tshipise Straightening Zone. The calculated decompression-cooling P-T path for sheared metapelitic gneisses from discrete high temperature shear zones deforming rocks of the Campbell cross fold shows that this superimposed shear deformational event occurred under peak P-T conditions of 4.98kbar/681ºC, followed by decompression and cooling down to 3.61kbar/585ºC. Water activity during this shear event was high, ranging from 0.217 at peak conditions and decreases to 0.117 at minimum calculated conditions. Structural and metamorphic data for the two folded areas thus indicate two distinct tectono-metamorphic events: (i) a late Archaean peak metamorphic and deformational event responsible for the formation of the Ga-Tshanzi fold, and similar folds throughout the Central Zone including the Campbell cross fold that was accompanied by steep NNE-SSW transport of crustal material, and (ii) a shear deformational event linked to the Paleoproterozoic Tshipise Straightening Zone that partially obliterated the early structural and metamorphic history of the Campbell fold during mid to upper crustal conditions during relatively shallow ENE-WSW directed movement of crustal material. The fact that this superimposed event had no apparent metamorphic effect on the studied metapelitic rocks of the closely associated Ga-Tshanzi closed fold, suggests that shearing was constrained to discrete north-south orientated zones.

M.Sc. / The Limpopo Complex (LC) of southern Africa is one of the best-studied Precambrian granulite facies terrains in the world, yet workers still disagree on fundamental aspects of the geological evolution of this complexly deformed high-grade terrain. Most workers agree that the two marginal zones were exhumed in the late-Archaean, but disagree on the timing of major tectono-metamorphic events that affected the Central Zone (CZ) of Limpopo Belt, and the mechanism/s of its formation. There are currently two main schools of thought: The first school regards the LC as a late-Archaean orogenic zone that resulted from a north-south collision of the Zimbabwe and Kaapvaal cratons. Granitic plutons throughout the entire LC are considered to be accurate time-markers for this orogeny. The second school suggests that the CZ evolved as a result of a major Paleoproterozoic tectono-metamorphic event based mainly on the interpretation of metamorphic mineral ages. The present study focuses on two aims, namely (i) to provide a synthesis of published data as a basis to understand the ongoing age controversy concerning the evolution of the CZ, and (ii) to show that specific fold types in the CZ can be related to either the late-Archaean or the Paleoproterozoic event. New age, structural, metamorphic, and petrographic data are presented to show that (i) major sheath folds reflect the peak tectono-metamorphic event that affected the CZ in the late-Archaean, while (ii) major cross folds developed as a result of a transpressive event in the Paleoproterozoic. The age of formation of the Avoca sheath fold located about 40 km west of Alldays is accurately constrained by the age of emplacement of different structural varieties of precursors to the Singelele Gneiss: penetratively deformed syn- to late-tectonic Singelele gneisses with a zircon SHRIMP age of 2651 ± 8 Ma, date the time of formation of the sheath fold that is characterized by a single population of linear elements that define the central fold axis. The Avoca sheath fold documents top-to-the-NNE movement of material during the exhumation of the high-grade CZ rocks. Weakly foliated late-tectonic L-tectonites with a zircon SHRIMP age of 2626.8 ± 5.4 Ma, outcrop near the centre of the sheath fold, and provide a minimum age for the shear deformation event. An almost undeformed (post-tectonic) variety of the Singelele Gneiss was emplaced after the shear event. A detailed metamorphic study of metapelitic gneisses from the large Baklykraal cross fold, located about 20 km east of the Avoca sheath fold, documents a single decompression-cooling (DC) P-T path for the evolution of this structure. Three studied metapelitic samples characterized by a single generation of garnet provide a Pb-Pb age of 2023 ± 11 Ma, that accurately constrain the time of formation of this major fold to the Paleoproterozoic. A metapelitic sample characterized by two generations of garnet provide a slightly older Pb-Pb age of 2173 ± 79 Ma, that is interpreted to also reflect the late-Archaean event. The Baklykraal cross fold is characterized by two populations of linear elements: the one population defines the shallow N-S oriented fold axes, while the second population is associated with top-to-the-NNE movement of material during exhumation, resulting in folds with a nappe-like geometry. A DC P-T path for the Campbell cross fold (Van Kal, 2004) located just west of Musina, suggests that cross folds developed under significantly lower P-T conditions than is the case with sheath folds, providing an explanation for the lack of significant anatexis associated with the Paleoproterozoic event. The late-Archaean orogeny in contrast, was accompanied by widespread anatexis during a major magmatic event that is characterized by an abnormal high radiogenic signature. This study, for the first time, provides evidence that link specific fold types, and thus deformational events, to different tectono-metamorphic events. The main conclusion is that the CZ was exhumed as the result of two distinct orogenies, one in the late-Archaean, and the other in the Paleoproterozoic.

Cette thèse porte sur le flambement d'une interface chargée en particules: une monocouche de grains denses et athermaux à une interface liquide-fluide plane que l'on appelle radeau granulaire. Ces radeaux se rident et se plient lorsqu'ils sont compressés comme des films élastiques. Nous étudions cette instabilité de flambement expérimentalement et théoriquement dans ces deux systèmes dans le cadre de la mécanique des milieux continus. Nous commençons par examiner les plis dans des films élastiques denses. Nous soulignons l'influence du poids du film dans la formation du pli. Puis nous explorons le régime des très grandes déformations, après que le film soit entré en contact avec lui-même. Suivant la densité du film, le pli se replie vers l'interface ou s'enfonce vers le fond de la cuve. Ensuite nous étudions les rides et les plis dans les radeaux granulaires compressés uniaxialement. A mesure que la compression augmente, nous observons deux motifs de ride distincts, puis la déformation se localise en un unique pli. Nous prédisons la forme et la taille des plis avec un modèle élastique résolu numériquement. Nous insistons sur les limitations de ce modèle et montrons que le caractère granulaire de ces radeaux n'est pas toujours négligeable. Enfin, nous déposons des gouttes d'eau à la surface des radeaux. Lorsque les particules sont hydrophobes et suffisamment grandes, elles capturent un film d'huile qui sépare la goutte du bain et empêche la coalescence. Puis nous modifions la taille de ces gouttes qui prennent des formes inhabituelles. Ces gouttes peuvent ensuite être encapsulées dans une fine couche de particules et d'huile conduisant à des gouttes d'eau dans l'eau. / This thesis is concerned with the buckling of a model particle laden interface: a monolayer of dense, athermal particles at a planar liquid-fluid interface that we call a granular raft. Under compression granular rafts wrinkle and fold like elastic sheets. We investigate this buckling instability experimentally and theoretically for these two systems under the continuum mechanics framework. We first look at folds in custom made dense floating elastic sheets. We highlight the influence of the sheet's own weight in the fold formation and shape. Then we explore the regime of very large deformations, after the sheet contacts itself. Depending on the sheet density, the fold in self-contact either bends back toward the interface or sinks down toward the bottom of the tank. We then look at wrinkles and folds in granular rafts. Our experimental apparatus allows us to compress the rafts uniaxially and extract their morphology. As compression increases, we observe two distinct wrinkling patterns, then the deformations localise in a unique fold. We develop an elastic model that we solve numerically to predict the fold shape and size. We then highlight the limitations of the model and show that the granular nature of these rafts cannot always be neglected. Finally, we deposit water droplets on top of granular rafts. If the particles are hydrophobic and large enough, the raft can inhibit coalescence indefinitely via particle bridging. When we vary the size of these floating drops, they take unusual shapes which depend on the raft properties. These drops can then be encapsulated in a thin composite oil-particle layer leading to water droplets in water.

Developing lifelike vocal fold models is challenging due to various associatedbiomechanical complexities. Nevertheless, the development and analysis of improved vocal foldmodels is worthwhile since they are valuable tools for gaining insight into human vocal foldvibratory, aerodynamic, and acoustic response characteristics. This thesis seeks to contribute tothe development of computational and physical vocal fold modeling in two ways. First is byintroducing a method of obtaining internal deformation fields within vibrating synthetic vocal foldmodels; second is by presenting an optimization algorithm coupled with a computational vocalfold model to optimize geometry and stiffness of a synthetic vocal fold model to achieve morerealistic vibration patterns.The method for tracking the internal deformation of self-oscillating vocal fold models isbased on MR imaging. Silicone models scaled to four times life-size to lower the flow-inducedvibration frequency were imbedded with fiducial markers in a coronal plane. Candidate markermaterials were tested using static specimens, and two materials, cupric sulfate and glass, werechosen for testing in the vibrating VF models. The vibrating models were imaged using a gatedMRI protocol wherein MRI acquisition was triggered using the subglottal pressure signal. Twodimensionalimage slices at different phases during self-oscillation were captured, and in eachphase the fiducial markers were clearly visible. The process was also demonstrated using a threedimensionalscan at two phases. The benefit of averaging to increase signal-to-noise ratio wasexplored. The results demonstrate the ability to use MRI to acquire quantitative deformation datathat could be used, for example, to validate computational models of flow-induced VF vibrationand quantify deformation fields encountered by cells in bioreactor studies.A low fidelity, two-dimensional, finite element model of VF flow-induced vibration wascoupled with a custom MATLAB-based genetic algorithm optimizer. The objective was to achievea closed quotient within the normal human physiological range. The results showed that changesin geometry and stiffness would lead to a model that exhibited the desired characteristics. Aphysical model based on optimized parameters was then fabricated and the closed quotient wastested. The physical model successfully vibrated with nonzero closed quotient as predicted by thecomputational model.

Title: Numerical modelling of vocal folds Author: Mgr. Bc. Jakub Michálek Department: Geophysics Department Supervisor: RNDr. Jakub Velímský, Ph. D., Geophysics Department Abstract: I created a 2D model of vocal fold oscillations driven by interaction with fluid flow (FSI model). I used the theory of finite strains of the structure. The flow was modelled as a viscous incompressible fluid. The numerical problem was solved by the finite element method (FEM) with the arbitrary Lagrangian- Eulerian (ALE) method. The model shows the regime before phonation without the contact of the vocal folds and the states that directly lead to the contact of the vocal folds. I compared the time dependence of the quantities measured at sensors attached to the folds. I measured the frequency characteristics and compared the results with the modal analysis. Consequently, I calculated a parametric study of the dependence of the oscillations on the inlet air velocity, the original distance of the vocal folds and the elasticity of the vocal folds. The parametric study confirms that a sufficient increase of the inlet air velocity and a sufficient constriction of the glottis lead to the phonation onset. The parametric study also shows that changing elastic parameters has a similar effect on the spectrum for both the FSI model and the modal...

Vocal fold models are valuable for studying voice production. They provide an alternative method of studying the mechanics of the voice that does not require in vivo experimentation or the use of excised human or animal tissue. In this thesis, a new method of creating vocal fold models through additive manufacturing is described. The purpose of this research was to reduce model fabrication time, to decrease the number of model failures during manufacturing, and to lay the foundation for creating models with more lifelike geometric and material properties. This research was conducted in four stages. First, a suitable silicone additive manufacturing technique using a UV-curable silicone was chosen. The technique chosen was called freeform reversible embedding (FRE) and involved embedding liquid silicone material into a gel-like medium named organogel. The UV-curable silicone's material properties were identified to confirm its utility in vocal fold model design. Second, an open-source, fused deposition modeling slicing software was selected to create g-code for the printer. Applicable software settings were tuned through qualitative printing tests to find their optimal values for use in FRE printing. Third, 3D-printed cubes were used in tensile tests to characterize the material properties of FRE-printed, silicone material. The cubes were found to be anisotropic, exhibiting different modulus values corresponding to the layer orientation of the printed material. Fourth, vocal fold models were FRE-printed in two different layer orientations and were used in phonation tests to gather data for onset pressure, vibratory frequency, amplitude, and flow rate. The printed models self-oscillated and withstood the strains induced by phonation. These tests showed that layer direction affects the phonation properties of the models, demonstrating that models with layers in the coronal plane had slightly lower frequencies and onset pressures than models with layers in the sagittal plane. The models' onset pressures were higher than what is found in human vocal folds. However, their frequencies were within a comparable range. These tests showed the effectiveness of additive manufacturing in the application of vocal fold fabrication, reducing production effort by allowing researchers to go directly from model design to fabrication in a single manufacturing step. It is anticipated that this method will be modified to incorporate printing of multiple stiffnesses of silicone to better mimic the material properties of vocal fold tissue, and that the anisotropy of 3D-printed material will be leveraged to model the anisotropy of human vocal folds. This work also has potential application areas outside of voice research.

Laryngeal cancer affects tens of thousands worldwide every year. The standard of care of surgical resection, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy results in significant quality of life deficits including reliance on tracheostomy tubes, loss of voice, and inability to swallow. There are no therapeutic options that restore a functional larynx so that patients can live a more normal life. Laryngeal reconstruction using tissue engineering strategies offers the potential to solve this problem. Laryngeal anatomy is complex with multiple tissue types and therefore engineering approaches require consideration of a multi-layer, interfacial tissue design. Our strategy to overcome these challenges involves the use of advanced bio fabrication techniques where type I oligomeric collagen alone or in the presence of autologous stem cells is used to custom-make the cartilage, skeletal muscle, and mucosal layer of the larynx. This doctoral research project begins by describing the development of the tissue engineered skeletal muscle with aligned collagen matrix and autologous muscle progenitor cells induced to express motor endplates. Next, using this engineered muscle plus the cartilage layer developed by a colleague; we implanted the myochondral engineered construct in a rat hemilaryngectomy model. In this study we saw host-implant integration with no inflammatory foreign body response, neo cartilage and muscle formation, and some return of laryngeal function on the reconstructed side. Next, we worked to scale-up these technologies for use in a porcine model. The pig larynx is more similar in size and function to the human larynx and allows for a full thickness defect to be created. Using confined compression, we created 4-mm thick acellular and cellular cartilage constructs, as well as a 0.5-mm thick acellular mucosal layer. A 1-cm diameter muscle layer containing autologous muscle progenitor cells was created using flow alignment and cultured to induce expression of motor endplates before implantation. Tissue constructs were subjected to mechanical property analyses as well as PCR analysis to describe the differential gene expression by component cells within muscle and cartilage constructs. Each layer was individually sutured into a pig hemilaryngectomy model. The pigs recovered well from the surgery, were eating, had no difficulty breathing, and no aspiration events. At 2 months, respiratory epithelium had completely healed over the implant and was vascularized and had areas of submucosal gland growth. The motor endplate expressing muscle implants showed new, organized muscle ingrowth while the acellular implants showed a relative paucity of new, disorganized muscle. This work represents a significant advancement in the field of laryngeal reconstruction and is a first of its kind to use scalable tissue engineering technologies designed to specifically meet each layer’s functional criteria.

Communication by voice is foundational in our society and many rely on their voices for their occupations. Voice disorders affect a significant number of individuals each year, and diagnosis and treatment improvements are therefore sought via advancements in voice research. Contained in this thesis is a description of work intended to contribute to vocal fold research by using synthetic, self-oscillating vocal fold replicas to study the impact of replica vibration on perfusion fluid flow through the replica. Methods for manufacturing vocal fold replicas containing imbedded channels allowing for fluid perfusion are discussed. Experimental procedures developed for delivering perfusion fluid to the imbedded channel at a constant pressure during replica vibration are described. Methods for measuring perfusion parameters of perfusion fluid pressure, imbedded channel diameter, flow rate, and vibration parameters (subglottal pressure, frequency, amplitude, channel length, and glottal width) are detailed. Experiments performed using both stationary and vibrating vocal fold replicas are presented. Correlations between perfusion pressure and channel diameter are discussed. Vibration parameters were correlated to perfusion flow parameters and it is shown that perfusion flow rate through the channels decreased significantly with model vibration. Potential mechanisms for changes in perfusion flow resistance with vibration are discussed and analyzed. Output of a theoretical model, developed to incorporate some of the possible flow resistance mechanisms, was compared to vibrating replica experimental data.

The vocal folds are a complex self-oscillating biological system. In the current research, an equation was developed to model viscous adhesion forces that occur when the collision of the vocal folds results in the formation of a liquid bridge. The adhesion equation was validated using experimental data, and simplified to a one-dimensional approximation with an included correction factor that adjusted the predicted pressure in situations where the one-dimensional approximation was invalid. A non-oscillating vocal fold model with a modeled liquid bridge was used to study stress resulting from viscous adhesion. The vertical normal stress magnitude ranged from about 80 to 1700 Pa. This was shown to be of the same order of magnitude as the stress due to collision of the vocal folds. Also the stress resulted in large normal strains that occurred at small distances below the surface of the vocal folds consistent with lesion development. Therefore, it was determined that the viscous adhesion may be a contributor to damage of the vocal folds that leads to the development of benign lesions, such as vocal nodules. This conclusion was further validated by adding the adhesion equation in a self-oscillating vocal fold model. The influence of adhesion on the dynamics of the model was significant. The frequency of vibration was reduced by nearly 2.5% for the case of adhesion with a mucus viscosity of 0.01 Pa-s. Also adhesion induced positive tensile stress that resulted in normal strain distributions similar to those seen in the non-oscillating cases. These results also indicated that liquid mediated viscous adhesion may be a contributor to the development of benign lesions (nodules). However, further research is needed to validate these conclusions.

This study examined the differences between normal vocal fold vibration and the movement patterns of vocal folds with mass lesions by means of a synthetic model. The experimenter molded and cast three sets of vocal folds, representing normal structure, small nodules, and larger nodules. Acoustic, aerodynamic, and digital video signals were recorded and analyzed in order to quantify air flow and pressure, measure vibratory stability, and visually assess closure patterns across the three structural conditions. Statistical analysis revealed that the presence of vocal nodules resulted in a significantly higher onset pressure, fundamental frequency, airflow at onset, and offset pressure. However, the results were inconclusive with regard to vocal stability, and it remains unclear whether the current models of nodules are sufficiently similar to the human system to adequately model the type of mass lesions typically seen in a clinical context.