Anthropocentrism is the view that humans generally are and should be the only legitimate recipients of direct moral consideration. This thesis locates ideological expressions of this view in the content and structure of 48 children's realistic animal stories. I conclude that the texts send ambivalent and contradictory messages: while children's stories may serve to inform the reader about our actual and potential connections to other animals, they also contain elements that continue to privilege the dominant view. As a result, the stories represent a limited arena for considering or realizing an alternative to anthropocentrism.

Invention should be privileged in the writing classroom. This is the most important implication resulting from extensive interviews with seven published writers about how they write. There are vast differences in their approaches to writing, but one thing common to all of them is that invention is central. Invention was central for Aristotle and for early eighteenth century pedagogical theorists, and it was again privileged by the theorists involved in the early days of the writing process movement of the 1960s, but historically it has always been gradually neglected. One predominant pedagogy today, often labeled current-traditional rhetoric, privileges form and correctness. The attempts to discredit current-traditional pedagogies have long been raging, and yet writing textbooks continue to teach their methods. Three important approaches to composition often associated with the process approach—expressionism, cognitive rhetoric, and social constructionism—represent a pulling apart of Aristotle's important proofs of ethos, pathos, and logos. The pedagogies of invention that are usually associated with these theories tend to emphasize one proof over another, and the unfortunate result is a narrowing of the concept of invention. Until we privilege and enrich invention we may never see the changes needed in the conceptualization and teaching of the process approach. We need to broaden our perception of a writer's process of writing to understand when invention is occurring and to recognize its powerful drive. Because of its serendipitous nature we need to be less rigid in our pedagogy to allow for and validate a writer's proclivities. Pedagogical implications from this study include the need for student writers to begin their writing and to be continually nourished by their own inventions. They will be motivated by their ideas to improve their writing. Student writers need to know the importance of recognizing and recording their inventions and to trust their individual writing processes that produce the inventions. Student writers will benefit by sharing in-process writing with people they trust, and they will benefit from the positive comments of teachers in response to their writing. Invention centered pedagogy, fortunately, promotes writing worthy of praise by teachers.

This ethnographic study examines how students learn English through classroom experiences that challenge their current cultural practices. In particular, I examine how learning language through activities affects students learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in a Korean university. It is based on the assumption, that learners have knowledge and use what they know to learn when presented with conflicting cultural models of learning. Because of globalization of English instruction, traditional Confucian values now co-exist in many Asian university EFL classrooms. My theoretical framework to explore these issues in Korea includes an examination of English language education policies through effect of globalization in Korean education, Confucianism and Vygotskian theories on language learners. In this ethnographic study, I have a dual role as the classroom teacher and a participant observer. I selected four focal participants for my research. My data include field notes, audio-tapes and notes from interviews, audio tapes from group activities, and notes from triangulations, verifications and peer reviews. Conceptual tools for data analysis are formulated using sociocultural theory together with activity theory (Engestrom, 1996). This perspective allowed me to provide a macro level analysis. In addition, I used Fairclough's Critical discourse analysis (Fairclough, 2001) for microanalysis of classroom in teaching and interview data. My findings from the macro level show how suggest that group interactions within an “English only policy” classroom re-created power structures derived from Confucian ideologies even though students' level of communicative abilities differed and institutional policies constrained them. Each student struggled in creative ways to respond to ideological conflicts presented to them. I document a shift in their learning ideologies, a shift in their levels of confidence and their identities after reflecting on their past learning experiences in two contrasting Freshman EFL classes. I also learned that as an international scholar educated in the US, I in many ways have become an agent of globalized English practices. Therefore I must also actually review my own biases and reflect on my actions.

One approach to bridging the gap between cognitively principled assessment, instruction, and learning is to provide the score user with meaningful details about the examinee's test performance. Several researchers have demonstrated the utility of modeling item characteristics, such as difficulty, in light of item features and the cognitive skills required to solve the item, as a way to link assessment and instructional feedback. The next generation of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) will be launched in 2005, with new task types that integrate listening, reading, writing and speaking—the four modalities of language. Evidence centered design (ECD) principles are being used to develop tasks for the new TOEFL assessment. ECD provides a framework within which to design tasks, to link information gathered from those tasks back to the target of inference through the statistical model, and to evaluate each facet of the assessment program in terms of its connection to the test purpose. One of the primary goals of the new exam is to provide users with a score report that describes the English language proficiencies of the examinee. The purpose of this study was to develop an item difficulty model as the first step in generating descriptive score reports for the new TOEFL assessment. Task model variables resulting from the ECD process were used as the independent variables, and item difficulty estimates were used as the dependent variable in the item difficulty model. Tree-based regression was used to estimate the nonlinear relationships among the item and stimulus features and item difficulty. The proposed descriptive score reports capitalized on the item features that accounted for the most variance in item difficulty. The validity of the resulting proficiency statements were theoretically supported by the links among the task model variables and student model variables evidenced in the ECD task design shells, and empirically supported by the item difficulty model. Directions for future research should focus on improving the predictors in the item difficulty model, determining the most appropriate proficiency estimate categories, and comparing item difficulty models across major native language groups.

This study is based on in-depth interviews with seven graduate students of literature who teach for a large research university, and the main concern is with their personal experiences and perspectives as they develop as teachers and students. How do they see themselves as readers and critics of literature? How do they see themselves as instructors of writing? The interviews focus on the reading, writing, and educational histories of these seven individuals, as well as on their impressions of their current classrooms: those they enter as students and those they enter as teachers. What stories do they have to tell? In addition to considering the seven participants as individual teachers and students, this study also focuses on their relationships with the teaching community within which they work. According to these seven teachers, how does their program construct the image of a writing teacher? Of a writing classroom? Of a writing assignment? How do those images align with previous ones held by the seven teachers? What adaptations and alterations take place? How might those changes relate to their study of literature? Some writers (Bishop 1995, Gale, Sullivan 1989) have portrayed the graduate literature classroom as pedagogically antithetical to certain writing classrooms, and this study investigates the oppositions and connections between those two spaces. Ultimately, this study also speaks to the complex disciplinary relationship between the fields of literary studies and composition. The participants provide a unique perspective on the relationship, and one that has been given little attention in other work. At times the difference between the two fields has been considered a cultural one (Elbow 2002, Moran 1995), necessitating different identities. But the participants here do not talk of shifting identities, or of cultural differences. Instead, their concerns with studying literature overlap with their concerns about teaching writing.

This qualitative study seeks to examine literacy acquisition and identity formation patterns in a group of learning disabled labeled (LDL) college students. This study involved the formation of a genre/constructive inspired reading and study skills class. This genre/constructive inspired class was then used with a group of students enrolled in Piedmont College, a small private two-year college specifically designed for students diagnosed with learning disabilities. Piedmont College was an institution organized around principles of cognitivism and information processing. In this study I have examined the ramifications of using an alternative constructive pedagogy in an institution dominated by information or cognitive pedagogy. Cognitive instructional techniques emphasize a skills-based curriculum leading to metacognition as a goal. My alternative pedagogy emphasized membership and participation leading to a concept I call production of knowledge. Production of knowledge is the ability of members to see themselves as sanctioned to create what is seen as viable, valued information and is an essential part of membership in an academic community. The findings of using this alternative pedagogy relate to both literacy and identity. Research reveals a complex literacy and identity formation process with these LDL students. This is not a simple case of skills development. In the area of literacy, research findings suggest that all students enter the class with a general understanding of academic literacy. As the class proceeds, however, they are able to develop and deepen this understanding. Greater degrees of membership are thus accomplished as the students incorporate academic literacy into their pre-existing discourse community memberships. In the area of identity, research findings suggest that the use of a genre/constructive pedagogy allows for student assumption of subject positions that otherwise would not be available. This provides alternative avenues for students to explore, grow and produce knowledge. These are necessary characteristics for membership in the target (academic) discourse community.

In Indonesia, the existence of a national curriculum tends to impose standardization on all levels of formal education, including higher education. The standards anchored in the curriculum are linked to academic needs of children and adults. Private universities in this developing country seem to serve a more diverse student population than their government counterparts, however, they seem to have less flexibility in developing curricula. The present study sets directions for private universities to improve their English language curricula. Students' perceptions about their experience in English language programs serve as guidelines for curriculum improvement. The English language programs in three private universities in Jakarta, Indonesia are selected as the research sites. Three major research questions guided the study: What do the students report as reasons for wanting to learn English? What are strengths and weaknesses of the English language curricula as perceived by the students in three selected institutions of higher education in Jakarta? What directions for improving their English language curriculum do the students recommend? Fifty-eight enrolled students and fourteen recent graduates from three institutions of higher education participated in this study. Data were mainly obtained through open-ended survey questionnaires. The findings revealed that motivations for learning English may be categorized into four variables: Language Competency, Employment Opportunity, Personal Knowledge, and Cultural Communication. The reasons provided by the 58 students currently enrolled are distributed as 38% Language Competency, 32% Employment Opportunity, 19% Personal Knowledge, and 11% Cultural Communication. As for the graduates of the program in English language and literature, 36% were motivated by the need to improve their Language Competency, 36% by the wish to increase their Personal Knowledge, and 29% by the goal of improving Employment Opportunity. Strengths and weaknesses of the English language curriculum centered on subject matter and other components of curriculum such as faculty, teaching methods, evaluation procedures, as well as learning facilities and equipment. Considered to be strengths across institutions were the improvement of skills in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Increased knowledge about culture and literature, along with helpful faculty members and methods that encouraged student participation in learning were also rated as strengths. Weaknesses included insufficient time for practicing speaking English in class and inadequate amount of composition and translation assignments, as well as uninteresting textual materials for some of the Linguistics courses. Other weaknesses included too much lecturing as teaching method, teacher-oriented approach, and inadequate book collections in school libraries. Recommendations for curriculum improvement included requests for more academically competent faculty, preferred methods of teaching that encouraged participation, and enlargement of library book collections. Administrators are also reminded to inform students of any significant academic changes that could affect their academic studies or completion of their degree. This study indicates that Indonesian students, despite their seemingly submissive demeanor, have very clear ideas of their motivations for pursuing their education in English language. Also these students point out strengths and shortcomings of the language program, together with suggestions for improvements that are likely to increase productive learning. It is the task of the institutions, administrators and faculty alike to utilize the students as a means for designing better curricula that will benefit both the learners and the institutions, instead of waiting for governmental directives.

This study problematizes the literacy practices of a second-year, Japanese language classroom at a small women's college. Drawing on critical perspectives on language, literacy and d/Discourse (Gee, 1990)—in particular, on sociocultural and poststructural theories—this study discusses the joint actions of a classroom teacher and her students. Using Fairclough's (1992b) model of critical discourse analysis as an analytical tool combined with the methodology of critical ethnography, this study closely examines classroom interactions through moment-by-moment analysis of numerous literacy events. Through year-long ethnographic fieldwork and two subsequent years of dialogue with the teacher, I chose to focus my study on “moments of tension.” I selected five “critical moments” when diversions from the teacher's lesson agenda were observed during the classroom literacy events. The dynamic interplay among the texts, the students' identities and the teacher's discourses inspired those critical moments. They were moments when both the teacher and the students struggled to defend what they believed as true and attempted to inhabit ideal subject positions against textual representations. My use of critical discourse analysis revealed that, in general, the students drew from the dominant discourses that the teacher had provided so that they could successfully participate and make sense of the literacy events. However, when the texts represented a reality or truth that challenged the students' beliefs about their identity and/or ontology, the students resisted such representations and “disrupted” the dominant classroom discourse by drawing on counter-discourses. Similarly, when the students' counter-discourses challenged the teacher's ontology and/or identity, she resisted taking up those discourses and tried to normalize the moments by deflecting the issues at hand and by withdrawing from the “intersection of the discourses” rather than opting to facilitate a dialogue about competing discourses. This study argues that these moments of tension displayed how students contributed significantly to the production of knowledge in the classroom. They point out how students exercise their agency and take up positions as “knowers” that align with their sense of self. My analysis also allows me to draw implications for the possibility of critical literacy practices in a FL classroom.

This study investigates the acquisition of pronominal reference in adult second language acquisition within the framework of the Government-Binding Theory of grammar. The analysis will draw conclusions regarding how grammatical explanations might be presented in Spanish language textbooks. Unlike English, Spanish does not seem to be consistent with the principle that a pronoun should be free in reference. Since some Spanish structures with subjunctive complements are obligatorily disjoint in reference, it will be argued that verbs of volition in those structures contain certain features which call for disjoint reference. Interpretation picture tests are used to assess second language learners' understanding of pronominal reference. Adult native speakers of English are tested at the beginning, intermediate and advanced levels of university Spanish language study. Results show that in simple sentences students have no difficulty interpreting pronouns. When complex sentences are used, results show that regardless of complement type (indicative, subjunctive), students initially define the complement sentence as the binding domain for its subject, and allow the subject to (co)refer freely. The acquisition of the requirement for disjoint reference develops through the interaction of lexical/semantic properties of main verbs with the structural principles.

According to Chinese government's policy, all students attending medical universities and colleges are required to study English for two- or two-and-a half years of their five- or six-year program. However, an English curriculum especially designed for medical students has never been developed. Currently, the English curriculum for science and technology (ECST) is being used in medical schools. The ECST is not based on any needs assessment of medical students, medical professionals, and medical professors, and lacks credibility. Without an adequate curriculum, the available English courses for medical students are irrelevant and ineffective. This study discussed and analyzed the problems relating to the English curriculum in medical schools and designed a relevant English curriculum for medical students. In doing so, the study utilized the following research procedure: (1) review of government's policy; (2) review of literature in English for specific purposes and curriculum development; (3) review of the current English curriculum for science and technology (ECST); (4) review of medical English textbooks; (5) review of English textbooks for Chinese secondary school students; and (6) field observation. Although there are no specific figures available, a growing number of Chinese medical students have been studying in English-speaking countries for the past decade. Considering that the Chinese government is likely to maintain its "open door" policy, students will continue to participate in advanced studies overseas. As part of their academic work, they are required to write papers in English. This strongly suggests that there is a need to design an English writing curriculum to help students develop needed writing skills in the English language. The curriculum developed in this study is for medical students who specifically need to improve their English writing skills in medical science. Based on the students' needs, goals and objectives were developed, and a syllabus was specified, teacher-training, materials and methods, as well as evaluation procedures were also defined. The curriculum is relevant for Chinese medical students, however, its effectiveness and sufficiency need to be field-tested and appropriate modifications must be made.