A load-deformation curve was divided into three stages for investigating the lateral resistance capacity of a metal-to-particleboard screwed connection. Four models were developed for predicting the lateral resistance of three stages which were based on Johansen yield theory. Bearing strength, an important parameter in the calculation, was considering non-uniform along with the thickness direction. One important assumption in the calculation was considering if the bearing strength was uniform or non-uniform along the thickness direction. The analytical and experimental results confirm that a non-uniform bearing assumption along the thickness direction was more efficient than the uniform assumption. The x-ray and withdrawal with angle testing indicated no obvious participating axial load. The lateral resistance should not contribute to increasing lateral resistance.

The purpose of this research was to investigate and create preliminary design aids for the determination of lateral resistance capacity and spacing requirements of deck tie fasteners in curved railroad bridges with smooth top girders. In railroad bridge design, required lateral resistance dictates the spacing of deck tie fasteners. Currently, no provisions exist to aid in the calculation of lateral resistance for systems that include bridge ties, fasteners, and girders which experience centrifugal or lateral forces. Thus, design practices specific to each railroad vary, producing inconsistent fastener spacing in existing railroad bridges. This project identified and quantified three factors contributing to lateral resistance through experimental testing: resistance due to friction at the tie-girder interface; resistance from the fastener; and resistance from dapped ties bearing against the girder flange. Three fastener types were studied in this research: Square body hook bolts, Lewis Forged hook bolts, and Quikset Anchors. Results indicated that frictional resistance is a product of the train wheel load and the friction coefficient. Fastener resistance was determined to be a function of fastener type and lateral track displacement. Finally, dap resistance was found to be a function of the area of the shear plane in a dapped tie. A preliminary equation for calculating the total lateral resistance capacity was developed utilizing superposition of all three resistance contributions. Lateral demand loads were compared with reported lateral capacity to create a preliminary design aid to determine fastener spacing. / Master of Science / Railroad bridges are constructed by securing wooden ties to I-shaped steel beams (girders) using deck tie fasteners. Curved railroad bridges should provide lateral resistance to resist lateral loads from trains negotiating the curve. Currently, there is no official practice for determining lateral strength, which is a function of fastener spacing. Thus, each railroad company uses a proprietary fastener spacing, producing inconsistencies in existing railroad bridges. The purpose of this research was to create a preliminary table or equation for determining the lateral strength and spacing requirements of deck tie fasteners through experimental testing. This project identified and quantified three factors contributing to lateral resistance: resistance due to friction at the tie-girder interface; resistance from the fastener; and resistance from dapped ties (ties that are notched to sit on the girder flanges). Three fastener types were studied. Results showed that frictional resistance was directly proportionate to the magnitude of the vertical wheel load. Fastener resistance was found to be a function of the type of fastener used. Finally, the dap was determined to be a function of the area of the shear plane in a dapped tie. A preliminary equation for calculating the total lateral resistance capacity was developed by summing the resistance contributions from all three resistance factors. Lateral loads were compared with lateral capacity to create a preliminary design aid to determine fastener spacing.

On open-deck railroad bridges, the crossties (sleepers) are directly supported by the bridge superstructure and anchored with deck tie fasteners such as hook bolts. These fasteners provide lateral resistance for the bridge ties. Currently there are no provisions to assist in the calculation of lateral resistance provided by railroad ties on open-deck bridges, and as a result there are no specific requirements for the spacing of deck tie fasteners. This has led to different design practices specific to each railroad, and inconsistent fastener spacing in existing railroad bridges. A research plan was conducted to experimentally quantify the lateral resistance of timber crossties on open-deck plate girder bridges using different wood species and types of fasteners. Experimental tests were conducted on five different species of timber crossties (beech, sycamore, southern pine, Douglas-fir, and oak) with three different types of fasteners (square body hooks bolt, forged hook bolts, and Quick-Set Anchors). A structural test setup simulated one half of an open-deck bridge with a smooth-top steel plate girder, and hydraulic actuators to apply both vertical and horizontal load to a railroad tie specimen. The three main contributions to lateral resistance on open-deck bridges were identified as friction resistance between tie and girder due to vertical load from a truck axle, resistance from the fastener, and resistance from dapped ties bearing against the girder flange. Initial testing isolated each component of lateral resistance to determine the friction coefficient between tie and girder as well as resistance from just the fastener itself. Additional testing combined both vertical load and fastener to determine whether or not the overall resistance is simply the sum of the friction and fastener resistance. Results indicated that friction resistance varies based on the magnitude of vertical axle load, species of wood, and creosote retention in the tie, while fastener resistance varies based on type of fastener and lateral displacement of the tie. An approximation of the lateral resistance as a function of lateral displacement was established depending on the vertical load, type of hook bolt, and coefficient of friction between tie and girder. The approximation was used in a structural analysis, which modelled a section of railroad track as a beam supported by non-linear springs spaced at discrete distance. Based on anticipated lateral loads, the analysis was used to determine a preliminary chart for a safe and economical fastener spacing for a railroad track based on type of hook bolt, creosote retention, tie species, and curvature of bridge. / Master of Science / On open-deck railroad bridges, the crossties are directly supported by the steel bridge girders and connected to the girders with fasteners as hook bolts. These fasteners provide lateral resistance for the bridge ties. Currently there are no provisions to assist in the calculation of lateral resistance provided by railroad ties on open-deck bridges, and as a result there are no specific requirements for the spacing of deck tie fasteners. This has led to different design practices specific to each railroad, and inconsistent fastener spacing in existing railroad bridges. A research plan was conducted to experimentally quantify the lateral resistance of timber crossties on open-deck plate girder bridges using different wood species and types of fasteners. Experimental tests were conducted on five different species of timber crossties (beech, sycamore, southern pine, Douglas-fir, and oak) with three different types of fasteners (square body hooks bolt, forged hook bolts, and Quick-Set Anchors). A structural test setup simulated one half of an open-deck bridge with a smooth-top steel plate girder, and hydraulic actuators to apply both vertical and horizontal load to a railroad tie specimen. The three main contributions to lateral resistance on open-deck bridges were identified as friction resistance between tie and girder due to vertical load from a truck axle, resistance from the fastener, and resistance from dapped ties bearing against the girder flange. Initial testing isolated each component of lateral resistance to determine the friction coefficient between tie and girder as well as resistance from just the fastener itself. Additional testing combined both vertical load and fastener to determine whether or not the overall resistance is simply the sum of the friction and fastener resistance. Results indicated that friction resistance varies based on the magnitude of vertical axle load, species of wood, and creosote retention in the tie, while fastener resistance varies based on type of fastener and lateral displacement of the tie. An approximation of the lateral resistance as a function of lateral displacement was established depending on the vertical load, type of hook bolt, and coefficient of friction between tie and girder. The approximation was used in a structural analysis, and the analysis was used to determine a preliminary chart for a safe and economical fastener spacing for a railroad track based on type of hook bolt, creosote retention, tie species, and curvature of bridge.

No description available.

Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) combines layers of dimension lumber in alternating grain direction to form a mass timber panel that can be used to create entire wall, floor and roof elements. The viability of CLT as an element to resist lateral forces from racking has been of great interest (Dujic et al. 2004, Blass and Fellmoser 2004, and Moosbrugger et al. 2006). However, most research to date has been conducted on full-scale wall panels connected with proprietary fasteners according to European Test Methods. Little research has focused on non-proprietary connections, including nails, bolts and lag screws. The behavior of CLT full-scale wall panels is dependent upon the individual connection properties including the panel-panel connections between adjoining CLT panels within the wall. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the behavior of three small-scale CLT connection configurations using non-proprietary fasteners. Three different connections -LVL surface spline with lag screws, half-lap joint with lag screws, and butt joint with a steel plate fastened with nails - were tested in both monotonic and cyclic tests. In all, 30 connection tests were conducted, with 15 monotonic test and 15 cyclic tests. Connection strength, stiffness, and ductility were recorded for each connection. Experimental values were compared to National Design Specification for Wood Construction, or NDS (AWC 2012) predictions for connection strength. Nailed steel plate connections yielded much greater loads and behaved in a more ductile manner than did the lag screwed connections. The surface spline and half-lap connections often failed in a catastrophic manner usually due to splitting of the spline and fastener failure. Experimental results were generally lower than predicted by the yield models for the surface spline and steel plate connections. The half-lap connection resulted in higher experimental results than predicted. A discussion of the connection strength for materials with a non-homogeneous grain direction is also included. / Master of Science

Subsea pipelines are subjected to wave and steady current loads which cause pipeline stability problems. Current knowledge and understanding on the pipeline on-bottom stability is based on the research programmes from the 1980’s such as the Pipeline Stability Design Project (PIPESTAB) and American Gas Association (AGA) in Joint Industry Project. These projects have mainly provided information regarding hydrodynamic loads on pipeline and soil resistance in isolation. In reality, the pipeline stability problem is much more complex involving hydrodynamic loadings, pipeline response, soil resistance, embedment and pipe-soil-fluid interaction. In this thesis Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling is used to investigate and establish the interrelationship between fluid (hydrodynamics), pipe (subsea pipeline), and soil (seabed). The effect of soil types, soil resistance, soil porosity and soil unit weight on embedment was examined. The overall pipeline stability alongside pipeline diameter and weight and hydrodynamic effect on both soil (resulting in scouring) and pipeline was also investigated. The use of CFD provided a better understanding of the complex physical processes of fluid-pipe-soil interaction. The results show that the magnitude of passive resistance is on the average eight times that of lateral resistance. Thus passive resistance is of greater significance for subsea pipeline stability design hence the reason why Coulomb’s friction theory is considered as conservative for stability design analysis, as it ignores passive resistance and underestimates lateral resistance. Previous works (such as that carried out by Lyons and DNV) concluded that soil resistance should be determined by considering Coulomb’s friction based on lateral resistance and passive resistance due to pipeline embedment, but the significance of passive resistance in pipeline stability and its variation in sand and clay soils have not be established as shown in this thesis. The results for soil porosity show that increase in pipeline stability with increasing porosity is due to increased soil liquefaction which increases soil resistance. The pipe-soil interaction model by Wagner et al. established the effect of soil porosity on lateral soil resistance but did not attribute it to soil liquefaction. Results showed that the effect of pipeline diameter and weight vary with soil type; for sand, pipeline diameter showed a greater influence on embedment with a 110% increase in embedment (considering combined effect of diameter and weight) and a 65% decrease in embedment when normalised with diameter. While pipeline weight showed a greater influence on embedment in clay with a 410% increase. The work of Gao et al. did not completely establish the combined effect of pipeline diameter and weight and soil type on stability. Results also show that pipeline instability is due to a combination of pipeline displacement due to vortex shedding and scouring effect with increasing velocity. As scoring progresses, maximum embedment is reached at the point of highest velocity. The conclusion of this thesis is that designing for optimum subsea pipeline stability without adopting an overly conservative approach requires taking into consideration the following; combined effect of hydrodynamics of fluid flow on soil type and properties, and the pipeline, and the resultant scour effect leading to pipeline embedment. These results were validated against previous experimental and analytical work of Gao et al, Brennodden et al and Griffiths.

Low-strength cellular concrete is a type of controlled low-strength material (CLSM) which is increasingly being used for various modern construction applications. Benefits of the material include its ease of placement due to the ability of cellular concrete to self-level and self-compact. It is also extremely lightweight compared to traditional concrete, enabling the concrete to be used in fill applications as a compacted soil would customarily be used. Testing of this material is not extensive, especially in the form of large-scale tests. Additionally, effects of skew on passive force resistance help to understand performance of a material when it is used in an application where skew is present. Two passive force-deflection tests were conducted in the structures lab of Brigham Young University. A 4-ft x 4-ft x 12-ft framed box was built with a steel reaction frame on one end a 120-kip capacity actuator on the other. For the first test a non-skewed concrete block, referred to as the backwall, was placed in the test box in front of the actuator. For the second test a backwall with a 30° skew angle was used. To evaluate the large-scale test a grid was painted on the concrete surface and each point was surveyed before and after testing. The large-scale sample was compressed a distance of approximately three inches, providing a clear surface failure in the sample. The actuator provided data on the load applied, enabling the creation of the passive force-deflection curves. Several concrete cylinders were cast with the same material at the time of pouring for each test and tested periodically to observed strength increase.The cellular concrete for the 0° skew test had an average wet density of 29 pounds per cubic foot and a 28-day compressive strength of 120 pounds per square inch. The cellular concrete for the 30° skew test had an average wet density of 31 pounds per cubic foot and a 28-day compressive strength of 132 pounds per square inch. It was observed from the passive force deflection curves of the two tests that skew decreased the peak passive resistance by 29%, from 52.1 kips to 37 kips. Various methods were used to predict the peak passive resistance and compared with observed behavior to verify the validity of each method.

Flowable fill was used to strengthen the soft soil surrounding piles and behind the pile cap. The flowable fill placed beneath the pile cap surrounding the piles showed no appreciable increase in lateral resistance, this was partially due to the fact that the flowable fill placed had an unconfined compressive strength of 30 psi. Flowable fill was also used to replace a 12 ft wide, 6 ft thick, and 6 ft deep zone consisting of an average 475 psf clay that was adjacent to a 9-pile group in 3x3 pile configuration capped with a 9 ft x 9 ft x 2.5 ft, 5000 psi concrete cap. The flowable fill placed behind the pile cap had an unconfined compressive strength of about 137 psi. Lateral load testing of the pile foundation was then undertaken. The results of this testing were compared with similar testing performed on the same foundation with native soil conditions. The lateral resistance of the native soil was 282 kips at 1.5 inches of displacement, and the total lateral resistance of the pile foundation with flowable fill placed behind the pile cap was increased by about 53% or 150 kips. Of the 150 kips, 90% to 100% can be attributed to the increased passive force on the face of the flowable fill zone and shearing of the base and sides denoting that the flowable fill zone behaved as a rigid block. The long term strength of the flowable fill when water is allowed to flow over it is still in question. Samples of the 137 psi flowable fill were cured in a fog room for 700 days and showed a 56% decrease in their unconfined compressive strength. Any increase in lateral strength from the flowable fill would be compromised over a period of time less than 700 days. Site specific characteristics concerning water flow would need to be evaluated to determine if flowable fill would be an acceptable material to increase the lateral resistance of a pile group.

Large scale static lateral load tests were completed on a pile cap with wingwalls under several different sand backfill configurations: no backfill, loosely compacted unconfined, loosely compacted slip plane wall confined, loosely compacted MSE wingwall confined, and densely compacted MSE wingwall confined. The relative compaction of the backfill was varied during each test to observe the change in passive resistance provided by the backfill. The wall types were varied to observe the force placed on the walls and the wall displacement as a result of the laterally loaded pile cap and backfill relative compaction. Passive force-displacement curves were generated from each test. It was found that the densely compacted material provided a much greater passive resistance than the loosely compacted material by 43% (251 kips) when confined by MSE walls. The outward displacement of the MSE walls decreased noticeably for the dense MSE test relative to the loose MSE test. Backfill cracking and heave severity also increased as the relative compaction level of the backfill increased. As the maximum passive force was reached, the reinforcement reached their peak pullout resistance. Correlations were developed between the passive pressure acting on the pile cap and the pressure measured on the MSE wingwalls as a function of distance from the pile cap for both loose and dense backfills. The pressure measured on the wingwalls was approximately 3 to 9% of the pressure acting on the pile cap. As the distance from the pile cap increased, the pressure ratio decreased. This result helps predict the capacity of the wingwalls in abutment design and the amount of allowable wall deflection before pullout of the backfill reinforcement occurs. Three methods were used to model the measured passive force-displacement curves of each test. Overall, the computed curves were in good agreement with the measured curves. However, the triaxial soil friction angle needed to be increased to the plane strain friction angle to accurately model both the loose and dense sand MSE and slip plane wall confined tests. The plane strain friction angle was found to be between 9 to 17% greater than the triaxial friction angle.

Large scale static lateral load tests were performed on a pile cap under varying sand backfill configurations: no backfill, full-width dense sand backfill, dense sand slip plane confined backfill, and two configurations of dense sand MSE wall confined backfills. Efforts were made to maintain the relative compaction of the backfills for each of the tests near the same value. The MSE wall panel arrangement was varied to determine the effect of different reinforcement configurations on the passive resistance and wall panel displacement. Passive force-displacement curves were generated from each test. It was found that the MSE design manual provided reasonable estimates of pullout resistance of bar mats in dense sand, and that the passive resistance of a soil backfill confined by MSE walls can be calculated with an increased friction angle using a log-spiral approach. Also, the amount the triaxial friction angle can be increased depends on how much the MSE wall panels displace outward. Correlations were developed between the pressure on the pile cap and that on the MSE wall panels near the pile cap. Generally, the pressure on the wall panels was less than 10% of that which was on the adjacent pile cap, and decreased as the distance from the pile cap increased. Finally, it was found that while limiting the backfill width decreases the ultimate passive resistance of the backfill, if the backfill is confined in a plane strain configuration the passive resistance per unit width is higher than that for an unconfined backfill.