No Estado do Pará, convencionalmente são empregados rocha britada ou seixo rolado natural como agregados nas misturas asfálticas. Nas proximidades da região metropolitana de Belém, não há disponibilidade destes materiais, obrigando o transporte destes agregados de boa qualidade de pedreiras e jazidas distantes mais de 170 Km, aumentando consideravelmente os custos de pavimentação. Com o objetivo de redução de custos, buscou-se o estudo de um outro agregado natural nãoconvencional, a laterita, abundante nas proximidades de Belém. Três tipos de ligantes asfálticos foram utilizados nas misturas asfálticas pesquisadas: um asfalto convencional CAP de penetração 50-60 proveniente da refinaria da LUBNOR, no Ceará; um asfalto da refinaria da REMAN da Amazônia modificado por asfaltita; e um asfalto-borracha da região sudeste. Uma quarta alternativa da mistura asfáltica foi considerada, empregando conjuntamente laterita e seixo rolado como agregados. Foi realizada uma análise comparativa das misturas asfálticas baseada em ensaios laboratoriais tais como: dosagem Marshall, danos por umidade induzida, deformação permanente em simulador de tráfego, resistência à tração por compressão diametral, módulo de resiliência e fadiga. Um processo inovador foi concebido para separação e lavagem das lateritas. Os resíduos desta seleção de agregados foram testados de modo a viabilizar seu emprego como material de base ou sub-base. Foi realizada também uma breve análise mecanicista de estruturas de pavimentos com o auxílio do programa ELSYM 5. Concluiu-se que as misturas asfálticas com laterita lavada podem ser usadas em revestimentos de pavimento de vias públicas e de rodovias de baixo volume tráfego obtendo-se os melhores resultados para as misturas de lateritaasfalto com o ligante modificado por asfaltita. / Crushed igenous rocks and washed quartzite gravels are conventional aggregates for asphalt mixes in the State of Pará, northern Brazil. However, these materials are not available in many parts of the state, specially near the city of Belem, the state capital. The current practice is to import these high quality aggregates from the few quarries located in remote sites, leading to a considerable increase in construction costs. To cut down costs, it is necessary to look for alternative sources of natural aggregates. This study attempts to present an alternative solution for asphalt mixtures using a non-conventional natural aggregate: laterites, which are widely available in the metropolitan area. Three types of asphalt binders were used: a conventional one – AC penetration of 50-60, an asphalt cement modified by gilsonite, and an asphalt rubber. A fourth type of asphalt mix was considered, using washed quartzite gravels in addition to the laterite. A comparative analysis was conducted using parameters obtained from laboratory tests like Marshall design, stripping test, wheel tracking test, indirect tensile strength, resilient modulus, and fatigue life. An innovative process was developed to clean the laterite by water washing. Residuals from the process were tested regarding its possible use as a material for pavement base or subbase. Finally, a mechanistic analysis was performed, using ELSYM 5 software. Results indicate a good performance to the hot-mixes and the one with gilsonite modified binder presented the best performance.

This thesis focuses on development of new regents which are suitable for recovering nickel, cobalt and copper from laterite leach solutions, specifically focusing on reagent requirements for novel base metal flowsheets developed by Anglo American. The work aims to design reagents which can extract nickel(II), cobalt(II) and copper(II) from a highly acidic aqueous sulfate solutions whilst showing selectivity over iron(II) and iron(III). Chapter 1 reviews current extractive metallurgy processes for separating and concentrating metals in laterite ores and describes new flowsheets proposed by Anglo American. Chapter 2 considers whether single reagent molecules with sets of tridentate donor atoms can generate sufficiently stable nickel(II) complexes to allow selective extraction of nickel from an aqueous sulfate solution. The salicylaldimines, 3-X-4-alkyl-6-(quinolin-8-imino)phenol, 3-X-4-alkyl-6-(2- methoxyphenylimino)phenol and 3-X-4-alkyl-6-(2-thiomethoxyphenylimino)phenol (alkyl = tert-butyl or tert-octyl; X = H, Br or NO2), were selected for study. The synthesis and characterisation of these proligands and their nickel(II) complexes are reported. XRD structures of Br-substituted salicylaldimines and their nickel(II) complexes are compared and discussed. The 4-tert-octylsalicylaldimines were used to extract nickel(II) from an aqueous sulfate solution with a pH > 2.8 and 3- nitro-4-tert-octyl-6-(quinolin-8-imino)phenol was found to be the strongest extractant in the series with a pH0.5 of 3.5. Computational studies of an analogous series of salicylaldimine proligands in the gas phase calculated the formation energies of their nickel(II) complexes and the predicted trend follows the experimentally determined solvent extraction results. Chapter 3 investigates modifications to phenolic pyrazoles, which are known copper(II) extractants. A series of 6-X-4-methyl-2-(5-alkyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-phenols (X = H, OMe, Br and NO2) was synthesised and characterised. Varying the 6-X-substituent of the phenolic pyrazole altered the strength of copper extraction and 6-nitro-4-methyl-2-(5-(1,3,5-tri-methyl-pentyl)-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-phenol was found to be the strongest extractant in the series. Analysis of XRD structures of related phenolic pyrazoles and their copper(II) complexes showed evidence of inter- and intra-molecular hydrogen bonding. Computational DFT studies in the gas phase were carried out to calculate the formation energies of analogous phenolic pyrazole copper complexes. The predicted order of these energies followed the same trend shown by experimental solvent extraction studies. The double deprotonation of 4-tert-butyl-(pyrazol-3-yl)-phenol at high pH forms a polynuclear complex in the organic phase with a copper(II) to ligand ratio of 1:1, thereby increasing the mass transport efficiency of copper by the reagent. The synthesis and characterisation of the [Cu16(4-tert-butyl-(pyrazol-3-yl)- phenolate)16(EtOH)4(H2O)2] wheel complex was carried out to demonstrate how such polynuclear copper(II) complexes could be formed under solvent extraction conditions. Chapter 4 explores the solvent extraction of nickel(II) and cobalt(II) by novel combinations of neutral nitrogen-donor heterocyclic ligands with organic acids, such as dinonylnaphthelenesulfonic acid (DNNSAH). The synthesis and characterisation of 2,6-bis(5-alkyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-pyridine, 2-(5- alkyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-pyridine and 5,5'-alkyl-3,3'-bi-1H-pyrazole (alkyl = tert-butyl or nonyl) and their nickel(II) complexes were reported. Also reported are synthesis and 6-N-alkyl-2-(2-pyridinyl)- benzothiazole (alkyl = n-butyl or n-decyl) and 2-(1-Isopropyl-benzimidazol-2-yl)-pyridine. The extraction of nickel(II) from highly acidic mixed metal aqueous sulfate solutions by some of these ligands was studied. These synergistic mixtures demonstrated remarkable strength and selectivity for nickel(II), and cobalt(II) over iron(II). XRD structures of nickel(II) complexes of 2,6-bis(5-tert-butyl- 1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-pyridine, 2-(5-tert-butyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-pyridine and 5,5'-tert-butyl-3,3'-bi-1Hpyrazole with sulfonates or perchlorates as ion-pairs have intermolecular hydrogen bonding interactions between the inner-sphere ligands and the counterions.

Approximately 70% of the western world's known nickel reserves are contained in laterite ores, but only 30% of the world's nickel production comes from these ores. This is due to the lack of economically viable technology to extract the nickel from these ores. However, recent advances in pressure acid leaching technology have resulted in new commercial attempts to extract nickel and its valuable by-product, cobalt, from laterite ores. The commissioning of three nickel laterite projects in Western Australia in the late 1990s represents the first of these new generation nickel operations, with several other projects; in Australia and overseas, in various stages of development. Unfortunately, several technical issues have hindered full production in these new refineries. Some of these problems are directly attributable to the mixer-settler contactors used in the solvent extraction process. This has highlighted a need to develop alternative contactors for industrial use. Electrostatic Pseudo Liquid Membrane (ESPLIM) is an alternative, novel technique to conduct the solvent extraction process. It combines the basic principles of solvent extraction, liquid membrane and electrostatic dispersion into a simple, compact reactor that utilises many advantages of each technique. The aim of this study w as to develop a method of extracting and separating cobalt from an acidic nickel laterite leach solution using ESPLIM. Bench scale tests using synthetic and actual leach solutions have shown that: the design and construction materials of the baffle plate and electrodes have a significant effect on the performance of the reactor; an AC power supply provided better droplet dispersion than a DC power supply; an increase in the applied electric field strength above a critical value resulted in a decrease in the aqueous droplet size and an increase in residence tune. / These effects increased the extraction efficiency and the concentration of the loaded strip solution. However, further increases in applied electric field strength decreased efficiency due to excessive levels of swelling and leakage; the known extraction isotherms for cobalt and nickel apply in the ESPLIM technique; salts of soluble organic acids influence extraction efficiency by changing the aqueous pH and interfacial tension; the use of ammonia was found to be effective as a replacement for salts of soluble organic acids; the ESPLIM reactor can cope with large changes in the flow rates of both feed and strip solutions. However, an increase in the feed flow rate should be accompanied by a relative increase in the ship flow rate to maintain high extraction efficiencies; the baffle design has a significant impact on the levels of swelling and leakage; provided the electrostatic field strength is maintained and flow rates are increased proportionately to the size of the reactor, no significant scale-up issues were observed, indicating that the data generated in bench scale studies could be applied to plant scale contactors. The optimum conditions, devised as a result of this investigation, to extract cobalt from an acidic nickel laterite leach solution using the ESPLIM technique are as follows: an applied electric field strength of 5.5 kV/cm. a raffinate pH of 5.5, a solvent containing 10% Cyanex 272 with 5% TBP in Solvent HF diluent, a feed to strip flow ratio of approximately 5 and a 1 M H[subscript]2S0[subscript]4 strip solution. At these conditions, almost complete cobalt extraction is achieved after only two extraction stages. A comparable extraction using conventional mixer-settlers could only be achieved after five stages.

The bulk of the world's known nickel reserves are contained in laterite ores but sulphidic ores remain the main source of the Western world's nickel production. With the continuing increase in nickel consumption and the depletion of sulphidic ores, the traditional source of nickel, the extraction of nickel from lateritic ores has been the subject of research interest worldwide. Advances in pressure acid leaching (PAL) technology have resulted in significant commercial attempts to extract nickel from these ores. Leaching the ore with sulphuric acid at elevated temperatures and pressures allows almost complete dissolution of the nickel and cobalt, a valuable byproduct of these ores, but yields highly contaminated pregnant leach solutions. Separating and purifying the nickel and cobalt from these solutions remains a hindrance to full commercial production. Several purifying techniques have been commercialised but all suffer from continuing technical problems. Among them, however, the direct solvent extraction (DSX) technique offers several advantages. Direct solvent extraction involves the separation of the nickel and cobalt directly from the partially neutralised pregnant liquor stream (PLS) by solvent extraction with Cyanex(R) 272 as the extractant. However certain contaminants adversely affect the solvent extraction process. Among them is chromium and little is known about the solvent extraction behaviour of this metal. The present work investigated the solvent extraction of chromium with Cyanex(R) 272. It was found that the solvent extraction behaviour of chromium(III) and chromium(VI), both of which could be found in PAL-generated PLS, are distinctly different. / For chromium(III), solvent extraction tests showed that (a) it is extracted in the pH range 4-7; (b) the extraction is partly influenced by diffusion; (c) the apparent equilibration time is significantly longer than most transition metals; (d) increases in temperature from 22 to 40 C resulted in increases in the extraction; (e) the pH0.5 increases in the order nitrate < chloride < sulphate in the presence of these anions; (f) the presence of acetate depresses extraction of chromium(III) when the solution is allowed to stand before extraction; (g) in the PLS, chromium(III) precipitated at lower pH than that predicted by the solubility product principle; and (h) the pH0.5 decreases as the Cyanex(R) 272 concentration increases. Chromium(III) is initially extracted by solvation of its inner sphere complex, which then undergoes further reaction in the organic phase leading to the formation of a much more stable species that is difficult to strip. A reaction scheme together with a description of both the initially extracted and resulting stable species is proposed. Extraction of chromium(VI), on the other hand, (a) occurs at pH less than 2 by solvation of chromic acid; (b) is independent of the aqueous phase composition; (c) does not occur in the pH range (3-6) used in the separation of nickel and cobalt. The latter is irrespective of temperature up to 40 C, the use of industrial PLS as the aqueous phase or the presence of an anti-oxidant in the organic phase. The stripping of chromium(III) from a loaded organic phase can be achieved using 1-4 mol L-1 mineral acids provided the stable organic species have not formed making industrial scale stripping of chromium(III) from Cyanex(R) 272 difficult. The exact composition of the aqueous phase during extraction affects the stripping efficiency.

Leaching is the most widely used process for extraction of nickel metal from lateritic ores. In this study, nickel extraction from Manisa-G&ouml / rdes region laterites by hydrochloric acid leaching is aimed. The mineralogical analysis of sample showed that hematite, goethite, dolomite, quartz and smectite are the main minerals in the ore. Attrition scrubbing, cycloning and magnetic separation with permroll were used as preconcentration processes but results were unsatisfactory. HCl leaching experiments were conducted both at room temperature and at elevated temperatures. The effects of various parameters such as leaching duration, particle size, concentration of HCl, pulp density, Cl- concentration and temperature on nickel recovery were examined. The results showed that under the optimised leaching conditions (particle size: 100 % -1 mm, HCl concentration: 3 N, leaching duration: 3 hours, leaching temperature: 100 oC, pulp density: 1/30 solid to liquid ratio by volume) it was possible to extract 87.26 % of nickel in the ore.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Murdoch University, 2005. / CD-ROM contains appendix G. Thesis submitted to the Division of Science and Engineering. Bibliography: leaves 205-218.

No Estado do Pará, convencionalmente são empregados rocha britada ou seixo rolado natural como agregados nas misturas asfálticas. Nas proximidades da região metropolitana de Belém, não há disponibilidade destes materiais, obrigando o transporte destes agregados de boa qualidade de pedreiras e jazidas distantes mais de 170 Km, aumentando consideravelmente os custos de pavimentação. Com o objetivo de redução de custos, buscou-se o estudo de um outro agregado natural nãoconvencional, a laterita, abundante nas proximidades de Belém. Três tipos de ligantes asfálticos foram utilizados nas misturas asfálticas pesquisadas: um asfalto convencional CAP de penetração 50-60 proveniente da refinaria da LUBNOR, no Ceará; um asfalto da refinaria da REMAN da Amazônia modificado por asfaltita; e um asfalto-borracha da região sudeste. Uma quarta alternativa da mistura asfáltica foi considerada, empregando conjuntamente laterita e seixo rolado como agregados. Foi realizada uma análise comparativa das misturas asfálticas baseada em ensaios laboratoriais tais como: dosagem Marshall, danos por umidade induzida, deformação permanente em simulador de tráfego, resistência à tração por compressão diametral, módulo de resiliência e fadiga. Um processo inovador foi concebido para separação e lavagem das lateritas. Os resíduos desta seleção de agregados foram testados de modo a viabilizar seu emprego como material de base ou sub-base. Foi realizada também uma breve análise mecanicista de estruturas de pavimentos com o auxílio do programa ELSYM 5. Concluiu-se que as misturas asfálticas com laterita lavada podem ser usadas em revestimentos de pavimento de vias públicas e de rodovias de baixo volume tráfego obtendo-se os melhores resultados para as misturas de lateritaasfalto com o ligante modificado por asfaltita. / Crushed igenous rocks and washed quartzite gravels are conventional aggregates for asphalt mixes in the State of Pará, northern Brazil. However, these materials are not available in many parts of the state, specially near the city of Belem, the state capital. The current practice is to import these high quality aggregates from the few quarries located in remote sites, leading to a considerable increase in construction costs. To cut down costs, it is necessary to look for alternative sources of natural aggregates. This study attempts to present an alternative solution for asphalt mixtures using a non-conventional natural aggregate: laterites, which are widely available in the metropolitan area. Three types of asphalt binders were used: a conventional one – AC penetration of 50-60, an asphalt cement modified by gilsonite, and an asphalt rubber. A fourth type of asphalt mix was considered, using washed quartzite gravels in addition to the laterite. A comparative analysis was conducted using parameters obtained from laboratory tests like Marshall design, stripping test, wheel tracking test, indirect tensile strength, resilient modulus, and fatigue life. An innovative process was developed to clean the laterite by water washing. Residuals from the process were tested regarding its possible use as a material for pavement base or subbase. Finally, a mechanistic analysis was performed, using ELSYM 5 software. Results indicate a good performance to the hot-mixes and the one with gilsonite modified binder presented the best performance.

Estimates of the depth and variation of lateritic weathering profiles are especially important in tropical areas such as Oahu, HI. Shear-wave velocity data were obtained by a new application of Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) to map the base of the critical zone, to show variations in the LWP, and to derive weathering rates. The MASW technique proved highly capable of imaging the base of the critical zone, confirmed by lithological well data and direct field measurements. Profile thickness can be obtained without drilling, which has applications in engineering and geochemical studies. The measured rate of advance of the weathering front derived from the thickness measured by MASW ranged from 0.019 m/ka to 0.30 m/ka in mesic zones; about 1500 mm of annual rainfall, while a zone of 800 mm of annual rain fall revealed rates ranging from 0.011 m/ka to 0.013 m/ka. These rates are comparable to geochemically derived rates in previous studies. Standard p-wave seismic reflection data were insufficient for detecting boundaries as the weathering boundaries are gradational and do not produce reflections. Shear-wave models also showed internal velocity variations that may be caused by weathering heterogeneity due to textural differences in parental lava flows. Soil chemistry revealed the nature of weathering products as enriched in Al, Fe, Ni, and Cr, and commonly contain alteration minerals such as halloysite, kaolinite, maghemite, and ferrihydrite. Imaging depth limitations were overcome by innovative experiment designs, pushing the boundaries of the current technology. Increasing offsets and combining dispersion curves allowed for a more objective picking of the dispersion curve into the lower frequency domain. Even further improvements were made from a newly developed form of the active/passive technique. These advancements in technology allowed for detailed imaging of the subsurface with greater modeling confidence. This study showed that velocity models derived from MASW are accurately able to describe laterite weathering profiles in terms of depth and variability, expanding the use of the MASW technique beyond its traditional applications and making it a potential tool of interest for many fields of geoscience.

Embankments are key elements in the infrastructural development of structures such as dams, bridges, and roads. Residual soils are generally used as fills in the construction of embankments in areas were residual soils such as laterite is the dominant soil types. Laterite soils have the characteristics of losing its shear strength with time and in fully saturated conditions and its properties varies from region to region. The soil property is influenced by the chemical composition and the environment. The binding agent iron oxide in such soils changes its composition with time and in the presence of moisture. Sudden failures of embankments founded of laterite soils which were, otherwise, checked and found to be safe with high factor of safety, have been observed. This study is performed to investigate the stability of embankments with sudden loss of strength with time and when it is fully saturated. The research includes an investigation of the properties of laterite soils around the world, with particular emphasis on Nigeria. Initially, information is gathered from different sources about the strength-based properties of such soils. Previous research in Nigeria is used as a basis for obtaining real-world soil data. Next, stability analyses are performed using SLOPE/W with shear strength parameters for total stress (short-term), effective stress (long-term), and fully saturated soil conditions. A probability analysis is conducted for the fully saturated conditions because of the variability in the input parameters. Three slope configurations (1:1, 2:1, and 3:1) are considered. The study revealed that the laterite soils embankments lose most of its stability over time period and in full saturation soil conditions. Both these conditions significantly compromise the strength of the soil and the related stability of slopes. To consolidate all information, a database of the properties of laterite soils in some localities of Nigeria was created on the geographic information system (GIS), in order provide a quick access to information on laterite soils in Nigeria.

ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Leaching of nickel laterite was conducted with a solution of ammonia and ammonium carbonate in a closed vessel. The vessel used in this study was designed to leach and perform solid-liquid separation at the same time. For solid-liquid separation, stainless steel sintered metal filter media were used. The sintered metal filter medium was selected for its high strength to withstand pressure, chemical resistance to caustic solution and back flushing properties. Optimum leaching conditions were determined by varying temperature, ammonia concentration, ammonium carbonate concentration and oxygen pressure. After leaching and filtration, the pH of the leach liquor was measured and samples were analyzed for dissolved metals (Ni, Fe and Co) using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The most significant variable effect on leaching of nickel was the ammonia concentration. The maximum dissolution of nickel from the unroasted ore was 11.90% at 4 M NH3, 100oC, 2 M (NH4)2CO3 and 2 bar O2 pressure. Optimization from the leaching data was done using response profiling and desirability in Statistica software. Optimum leaching conditions were determined to be 3 M NH3, 2 M (NH4)2CO2, 100oC and 2 bar O2 pressure. The mineralogy of the ore before and after leaching was studied to understand why nickel extraction from unroasted ore was poor. XRF analysis of solids after leaching showed that iron, silicon, and magnesium remained the same. The only metal which showed significant decrease from solids was nickel. XRD analysis of solids after and before leaching showed that most mineral phases present in the ore are not affected by the leaching solution. SEM with EDS detection was used to determine nickel distribution within the ore. The results showed that nickel is mostly associated with iron. The iron is surrounded by magnesium and silicon. Silicate minerals do not react with ammonia and ammonium carbonate solution. From filtration experiments, the filtration differential pressure had no significant effect on the filtration rate. An average filtration rate of 0.29±0.07 ml/min.cm2 was obtained. The filtration rate from these experiments was very low. The main reason was due to quick pore clogging of sintered metals. Pore clogging was found to be mainly on the surface of the filter medium. Laterites have been found to have low permeability due a lot of clay present in the ore. Rheological studies on this ore showed that the ore has shear thickening behavior. However, a very clear filtrate was obtained. After each leach and filtration experiment, the sintered metals was unblocked by back flushing with water and air. Back flushing was successful because all 18 experiments were carried out using the same sintered filter medium. The effect of roasting the ore prior to leaching was investigated using optimum conditions obtained when leaching the unroasted ore. There was a slight improvement in nickel extraction when the ore was roasted. The average percentage extraction of nickel from 3 experimental runs was 19.25%±0.19 at 100oC, 3M NH3, 2M (NH4)2CO3, and 5 bar oxygen pressure. Some part of nickel in the ore was unextractable due to association of nickel with recrystallized silicate minerals in the reduced ore. Roasting improved permeability of the ore. The filtration rate improved significantly after roasting the ore. The average filtration rate was 2.60±0.05 ml/min.cm2. Dissolution kinetics of the unroasted and roasted saprolitic laterite were investigated with regard to the effects of temperature, ammonia concentration, ammonium carbonate concentration, and oxygen pressure. For the unroasted ore, it was found that dissolution rate and degree of nickel extraction increases with increasing temperature. Increase in ammonia concentration improves the degree of nickel extraction. Nevertheless, nickel extraction does not depend entirely on ammonia concentration because even when ammonia concentration is high and ammonium carbonate concentration is zero nickel extraction is low. An increase in ammonium carbonate concentration also increases the degree of nickel extraction. Ammonium carbonate is critical for the extraction, since ammonium ions in the solution prevent hydrolysis of the nickel ammine complex. Oxygen did not have a significant effect on the degree of nickel extraction. The leaching of nickel laterite was found to be a two stage leaching process. In the first stage, the dissolution of nickel is faster but after 15 minutes, the reaction rate is reduced. The reaction rate is reduced by inert minerals which host nickel. These minerals contain iron magnesium and silicon. The fast dissolution of nickel in the first stage represents leaching of free nickel in the ore. The data for the second stage of leaching was analyzed by the shrinking core model, and the results suggested that the dissolution rate is controlled by mixture kinetics (ash layer diffusion and surface reaction control). The activation energy for the dissolution reaction was calculated as 56.5 KJ/mol. The reaction order with respect to ammonia and ammonium carbonate were determined to be 0.3 and 0.26 respectively. For the roasted ore, the highest degree of nickel extraction was obtained at 60oC, 3M NH3, 2M (NH4)2CO3, and 5 bar oxygen pressure. The percentage extraction under these conditions was 28.7%. Temperature did not have a significant effect on the leaching rate. An increase in NH3 and (NH4)2CO3 increased the final extraction of nickel but did not have any effect on leaching rate in the first stage of leaching. In the absence of ammonium carbonate, nickel extraction is almost zero. The experimental data did not give linear fit to the shrinking core models investigated for the unroasted ore. The reason for this could be due to the sampling time interval which was too far apart, or the leaching behavior of roasted nickel is complicated and cannot explained by shrinking core model alone. Leaching experiments demonstrate that for a high degree metal extraction and improved reaction kinetics with ammonia and ammonium carbonate, the solution temperature should be high (>100oC) for the unroasted ore. In order to leach at high temperature with ammonia and ammonium carbonate a closed vessel is required to prevent reagent loses. The reaction kinetics showed that the reaction is controlled mostly by ash layer diffusion; this indicates that a low degree of nickel extraction in the unroasted saprolitic laterite is due to inert minerals (ash layer) which host nickel within the ore. In order to obtain a high degree of nickel extraction, the ore needs to be roasted under reducing conditions. Roasting conditions need to be carefully controlled to ensure high dissolution of nickel. In fact optimum roasting conditions which will give maximum dissolution of nickel, must be determined before working with the bulk of the ore. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Logingstoetse van saprolitiese lateriet met 'n oplossing van ammonia en ammonium karbonaat is gedoen in 'n druk houer. Die logingsvat vir hierdie studie is ontwikkel om die loging sowel as die vloeistof – vastestof skeiding te doen. Gesinterde metaal filter medium was gebruik vir die vloeistof – vastestof skeiding aangesien dit die volgende eienskappe vertoon; die vermoë om druk te weerstaan, die chemiese weerstand teen bytsoda oplossing, asook voordelige terugspoel eienskappe. Optimum loogkondisies is bepaal deur die temperatuur, ammoniak konsentrasie, ammonium karbonaat konsentrasie, en suurstof druk te varieer. Na loging en filtrasie is die pH van die loogvloeistof gemeet en monsters is deur atoom absorpsie spektrofotometrie geanaliseer vir opgeloste metale (Ni, Fe en Co). Die veranderlike wat die grootste effek op die loging van nikkel gehad het was die ammoniak konsentrasie. Die maksimum herwinning van nikkel van uit ongeroosterde erts was 11.9 % by 4 M NH3, 100 oC, 2 M (NH4)2CO3 en 2 bar O2 druk. Optimisering van die loogdata is gedoen deur die respons profiel te analiseer met Statistica sagteware. Optimum loogkondisies was bepaal as 3 M NH3, 2 M (NH4)2CO2, 100 oC en 2 bar O2 druk. Die mineralogie van die erts voor en na loging is bestudeer om te bepaal waarom die nikel opbrengs van ongeroosterde erts so laag was. XRF analise van die vastestof na loging het gewys dat yster, silikon en magnesium nie deur loging affekteer is nie. Slegs nikkel het 'n merkwaardige afname getoon. XRD analsiese van die vastestof voor en na loging wys dat die meeste mineraal fases teenwoordig in die erts nie deur die loogoplossing affekteer is nie. SEM met EDS deteksie is gebruik om die nikkel verspreiding in die erts te bepaal. Die resultate wys dat nikkel meestal met yster assosieer. Die yster is omring deur magnesium en silikon. Silikaat minerale reageer nie met ammoniak en ammonium karbonaat oplossing nie. In filtrasie eksperimente is daar gevind dat die filtrasie differensiële druk geen noemenswaardige effek op die filtrasie tempo gehad het nie. Die gemiddelde filtrasietempo was 0.29+0.07 ml/min.cm2. Die filtrasie tempo van hierdie eksperimente was baie laag, hoofsaaklik as gevolg van blokkasie van porieë van die sinter metaal filter medium. Dit is gevind dat blokkasie van porieë hoofsaaklik op die oppervlak van die filter medium plaasvind. Lateriedes toon 'n lae deurlaatbaarheid as gevolg van die erts se hoë klei inhoud. Rheologiese studies op hierdie erts wys dat die erts skuif verdikking (“shear thickening”) gedrag vertoon. 'n Baie helder filtraat is egter verkry. Die gesinterde metale is na elke loog en filtrasie eksperiment skoongemaak deur terugspoeling met water en lug. Hierdie procedure was suksesvol, aangesien al 18 eksperimente met dieselfde filter medium uitgevoer is. Die effek van erts roostering voor loging is ondersoek by die optimum kondisies wat verkry was vir die loging van ongeroosterde erts. Nikkel ekstraksie het effens verbeter met geroosterde erts. Die gemiddelde persentasie ekstraksie van nikkel van drie eksperimentele lopies was 19.25 % + 0.19 by 100 oC, 3 M NH3, 2 M (NH4)2CO3, en 5 bar suurstofdruk. 'n Gedeelte van die nikkel in die erts was onherwinbaar as gevolg van die assosiasie van nikkel met her-gekristaliseerde sillikaat-minerale in die gereduseerde erts. Die porositeit van die erts is verbeter deur dit te rooster. Die filtrasie tempo het merkwaardig verbeter nadat die erts gerooster is. Die gemiddelde filtrasie tempo was 2.6+0.05 ml/min.cm2. Kinetika vir die oplossing van ongeroosterde en geroosterde saprolitiese lateriet is ondersoek, met in ag geneem die effekte van temperatuur, ammonia konsentrasie, ammonium karbonaat konsentrasie en suurstofdruk. Vir ongeroosterde erts is gevind dat die oplossingstempo en graad van nikkel ekstraksie toeneem met toenemende temperatuur. Toename in ammoniak konsentrasie lei tot 'n toename in nikkel ekstraksie, maar nikkel ekstraksie is nie alleenlik afhanklik van ammoniak nie. 'n Toename in ammonium karbonaat konsentrasie lei ook tot 'n toename in nikkel ekstraksie. Ammonium karbonaat is krities vir die ekstraksie, aangesien ammonium ione in die oplossing die hidrolise van die nikkel-amien kompleks verhoed. Suurstof het nie 'n merkwaardige effek op die totale nikkel ekstraksie gehad nie. Vir die bepaling van reaksie kinetika is 100˚C gebruik as die logingstemperatuur. Die loging van saprolitiese nikkel lateriet vind in twee stadia plaas. In die eerste fase is die oplossing van nikkel vinnig, maar na 15 minute neem die reaksietempo af. Die reaksietempo word verlaag deur inerte minerale wat teenwoordig is in die nikkel erts. Hierdie minerale bevat yster, magnesium en silikon. Die vinnige oplossing van nikkel in die eerste fase verteenwoordig die loging van vry nikkel in die erts. Die data vir die tweede stadium is geanaliseer deur die krimpende kern model, en die resultate dui aan dat die oplossingstempo deur 'n gemengde meganisme beheer word (as laag diffusie en oppervlak reaksie beheer). Die aktiveringsengergie vir die oplossingsreaksie was bereken as 56.5 kJ/mol. Die reaksieorde ten opsigte van ammoniak en ammonium karbonaat is onderskeidelik bepaal as 0.3 en 0.26. Die hoogste graad van nikkel ekstraksie vir die geroosterde erts is verkry by 60oC, 3 M NH3, 2 M (NH4)2CO3, en 5 bar O2 druk. Die persentasie ekstraksie by hierdie kondisies was 28.7 %. Temperatuur het nie 'n merkwaardige effek op loogtempo gehad nie. 'n Toename in NH3 en (NH4)2CO3 het die graad van nikkel ekstraksie laat toeneem, maar het nie enige effek op die loogtempo gehad nie. In die afwesigheid van ammonium karbonaat het byna geen nikkel ekstraksie plaasgevind nie. Die eksperimentele data het nie 'n lineêre passing vir die krimpende kern model soos vir die ongeroosterde erts ondersoek gegee nie. Die rede hiervoor is dat die monsternemings interval te groot was, of dat die logings karakteristiek van geroosterde nikel gekompliseerd is en nie alleen deur die krimpende kern model voorspel kan word nie. Logings eksperimente wys dat die temperatuur hoog moet wees (> 100 oC) om 'n hoë graad van nikkel ekstraksie te verkry met die ongeroosterde erts. 'n Geslote reaktor word benodig om by 'n hoë temperatuur met ammoniak en ammonium karbonaat te loog om reagens verliese te verhoed. Die reaksie kinetika word grootliks deur aslaag diffusie beheer. Hieruit kan gesien word dat 'n lae graad van nikkel ekstraksie uit die ongeroosterde saprolitiese lateriet die gevolg is van nie-reaktiewe minerale (aslaag) waarin die nikkel binne die erts bevat word. Om 'n hoë graad van nikkel ekstraksie te verkry moet die erts onder reduserende kondisies gerooster word. Rooster kondisies moet versigtig beheer word om hoë oplossing van nikkel te verseker. Optimum rooster kondisies om maksimum nikkel oplossing te verkry, moet bepaal word voordat daar met groter hoeveelhede erts gewerk kan word.