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A common misconception in our understanding of the history of conducting stems from a failure to identify properly the origin of beat patterns. Berlioz's L'Art du chef d'orchestra, written in 1844, has long been accepted as the first major text to codify both the principles of conducting and the beat-patterns conductors have employed to facilitate communication with performers.The beat-patterns illustrated in L'Art du chef d'orchestre had actually been in existence for well over a century before Berlioz wrote about them. The present study will document the existence of beat patterns prior to 1844 and examine their influence on performance practice.

The practice of applying variation to a given musical statement is one of the oldest of musical concepts. Before written notation was developed, the aural transmission of musical ideas naturally involved some degree of personal interpretation and variation. Documented history of variations as a musical form begins in the sixteenth century when the variation was established as an important musical procedure which increased the length and expression of a musical idea. In The Technique of Variation, Robert Nelson distinguishes seven categories of variation types developed from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries: 1. Renaissance and baroque variations on secular songs, dances, and arias. 2. Renaissance and baroque variations on plain songs and chorales. 3. The baroque basso ostinato variation. 4. The ornamental variation of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 5. The nineteenth -century character variation. 6. The nineteenth -century basso ostinato variation. 7. The free variation of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Variation remains an important process in music in the twentieth century -- as a viable compositional technique, as a virtuosic showpiece for the concert stage, and as a basic element of jazz music, where ornamentation and variation are integral elements of improvisation. The theme and variations is particularly suited to the harp. Elements of the form, such as its sectional aspects, allow the exposition of many facets of the instrument in one composition. The harp is endowed with an outstanding capacity for tone color and interpretive effects. Certain techniques available only to the harp, such as the glissando, bisbigliando, and pedal slide can be incorporated into a theme and variation, presenting a vast range of interpretive possibilities. The following four variation works offer a comprehensive representation of Theme and Variations originally written for the harp: Tema con Variazioni, G. F. Handel, Variations on a Theme of Mozart, M. I. Glinka, Fantaisie pour Harpe sur un theme de Haydn, M. Grandjany, Variations sur un theme dans le Style Ancien, C. Salzedo. These works span a period from the early eighteenth century to the twentieth century, during which time many advancements were made in the construction of the harp and also in the development of harp technique. Themes and variations are extremely worthwhile for pedagogical purposes as well as for performance on the concert stage. Suitability of the form for the harp and the virtuosic nature of the works have made them an important part of the harp repertoire.

Most choral conductors, at some point in their career, will be faced with the prospect of performing a composition that utilizes both voices and instruments. There is a considerable amount of material to turn to for assistance in the areas of gesture, instrumental conducting terminology, and suggestions for improving communication with a group of instrumentalists. However, very little information is available to help determine proper placement of the musicians for performance. This aspect is critical since one of the major difficulties in dealing with instruments and voices is achieving a dynamic balance between the two forces. Too often the method of obtaining an acceptable balance is limited to the conductor imploring the orchestra to play as soft as possible and the chorus to sing louder. Frequently, especially in large choral/orchestral performances, subtle nuances which have been carefully rehearsed seem to either be disregarded or sacrificed during the performance. The purpose of this study is to provide the choral conductor with information on seating arrangements, acoustical properties of voices, instruments and architecture, and demonstrate how, utilizing this material, a seating arrangement for Trinity Presbyterian Church in Tucson, Arizona was designed. It is hoped that this study will provide information which will assist the conductor in making knowledgeable decisions concerning the placement of musicians toward a more satisfactory dynamic balance.

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The twentieth century has seen a tremendous growth in popularity of the saxophone quartet and its literature. The story of this development includes many interesting people and is a reflection of musical trends in the recent past. The saxophone quartet was modeled after the string quartet with the soprano saxophone and the alto saxophone corresponding to the first and second violin, the tenor saxophone to the viola, and finally the baritone saxophone to the cello.

Twentieth century composers of music for the piano often make use of certain unusual effects that probably had not occurred to the instrument's builders. From its origins in the early eighteenth century to the present day the modo ordinario of piano technique remains similar to that of its keyboard relatives, the clavichord and harpsichord. Fingers on the keys and one key per finger are the norm. Had Cristofori, Silbermann, Stein, and other early instrument builders realized the latent possibilities of their instruments, it is difficult to imagine how the course of music history might have been altered. As it is, however, "new instrumental resources --most notably, a great variety of timbres plucked, scraped, strummed, and scratched out of the insides of the piano " were left to be discovered by twentieth century composers, or were they? Charles Ives, Henry Cowell, and John Cage are three experimentalists of this century to whom credit is given for having invented certain of these "new instrumental resources." Depending upon which authority one consults, either Ives Cowell receives credit for the tone cluster. Plucking (pizzicato), strumming, tremolo, stopped- string harmonics- - all achieved by reaching inside the instrument- -are credited to Cowell, as are sympathetic vibration harmonics. It is said that Cage invented the prepared piano, although he himself considers it to be an extension of Cowell's placing of objects directly on the piano strings. Since there exist musical works dàting from the early eighteenth and nineteenth centuries which make use of all of these effects--albeit, some in embryo-- it would be more accurate to say that Ives, Cowell, and Cage reinvented them and exploited their possibilities during a time in which musical conventions in general were under attack. It is not possible to point to the early works as trend-setting; nor can one trace a direct line of influence from the eighteenth century through the nineteenth century to Ives and Cowell. It is possible to say, however, that "nothing is wholly new. Each thing, however new it appears, had many antecedents." The purpose here, then, is to point to some of these antecedents and trace influences where possible, particularly in the twentieth century.

The direct translation of the French title, trio d'anches, is simply trio of reeds. It consists of the standard reed instruments of the orchestra: oboe, clarinet, and bassoon. The main purpose of this study is to help the American reader appreciate and be more familiar with this unique and largely unknown chamber music genre. Unknown, because it is more represented in some countries of the world than in others, both in numbers of compositions and performers of these compositions. In France, for example, there are professional trios concertizing year around as well as faculty trios attached to most music conservatories. In the United States, however, there has been very little interest in this combination. The author will be discussing the contributions of some composers from other countries later in this document. Throughout this study, the author has chosen to refer to the trio of reeds as trio d'anches for two reasons. First, the French composers have been primarily responsible for the output of this group's music-- approximately 36% of the entire repertoire, with 17 countries represented. Second, since the French were the first to create this combination and write for it, the author has selected only French composers as examples. The pieces chosen cover a time period from 1897-1954. It is interesting to note that the most significant international increase in the composing, performing, and publishing of wind chamber music occurred in the 1930's and 40's. However, since that time virtually every combination, including the trio d'anches, has continued to be recognized with new and expansive compositions.

The practice of applying variation to a given musical statement is one of the oldest of musical concepts. Before written notation was developed, the aural transmission of musical ideas naturally involved some degree of personal interpretation and variation. Documented history of variations as a musical form begins in the sixteenth century when the variation was established as an important musical procedure which increased the length and expression of a musical idea. In The Technique of Variation, Robert Nelson distinguishes seven categories of variation types developed from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries: 1. Renaissance and baroque variations on secular songs, dances, and arias. 2. Renaissance and baroque variations on plain songs and chorales. 3. The baroque basso ostinato variation. 4. The ornamental variation of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 5. The nineteenth-century character variation. 6. The nineteenth-century basso ostinato variation. 7. The free variation of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Variation remains an important process in music in the twentieth century -- as a viable compositional technique, as a virtuosic showpiece for the concert stage, and as a basic element of jazz music, where ornamentation and variation are integral elements of improvisation. The theme and variations is particularly suited to the harp. Elements of the form, such as its sectional aspects, allow the exposition of many facets of the instrument in one composition. The harp is endowed with an outstanding capacity for tone color and interpretive effects. Certain techniques available only to the harp, such as the glissando, bisbigliando, and pedal slide can be incorporated into a theme and variation, presenting a vast range of interpretive possibilities. The following four variation works offer a comprehensive representation of Theme and Variations originally written for the harp: Tema con Variazioni, G. F. Handel; Variations on a Theme of Mozart, M. I. Glinka; Fantaisie pour Harpe sur un theme de Haydn, M. Grandjany; Variations sur un theme dans le Style Ancien, C. Salzedo. These works span a period from the early eighteenth century to the twentieth century, during which time many advancements were made in the construction of the harp and also in the development of harp technique. Themes and variations are extremely worthwhile for pedagogical purposes as well as for performance on the concert stage. Suitability of the form for the harp and the virtuosic nature of the works have made them an important part of the harp repertoire.

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