M.Sc. / Research into blood protozoans (haematozoans) infecting African tortoises is scanty with only a few records published, many during the early part of the last century. Little research had been done on the blood parasites of tortoises examined in this study namely, Kinixys lobatsiana, K. belliana belliana, K. natalensis, Geochelone pardalis pardalis, G. pardalis babcocki and Chersina angulata. The study therefore aimed to: 1) examine apicomplexan haematozoan parasites infecting several of South Africa’s indigenous tortoises and compare them with published species descriptions, especially from neighbouring Mozambique; 2) provide host details (identity, ectoparasites, host weight and gender, effects of blood parasites on host cells) and locality records in different seasons for described and new apicomplexan species; 3) describe new and recorded parasites using morphometrics and, if possible, ultrastructural characteristics 4) attempt apicomplexan DNA extraction, amplification and, if feasible, purification; and 5) establish a basis for future research as a result of the acquired knowledge. During the current study, 154 tortoises of six species in three genera, both captive and wild, and from four South African provinces (Gauteng, North West, Kwazulu-Natal and Western Cape) were sampled. Giemsa stained blood smears and use of image analysis enabled morphometric analysis of the apicomplexans and their effects on host cells, while some blood preserved in Karnovsky’s and Todd’s fixatives received detailed examination by transmission electron microscopy. Lastly, blood preserved in lysis buffer during collection, and with the highest parasitaemias, was subjected to parasite DNA extraction and amplification. Comparisons between a published account of apicomplexans recorded from K. b. belliana in Mozambique, and those found in the current study, identified two haemogregarine species. In the present research, Haemogregarina fitzsimonsi Dias, 1953 infected 2/27 (7%) wild North West K. lobatsiana, 2/3 (66%) captive Kwazulu-Natal K. natalensis, 7/14 (50%) captive Kwazulu- Natal K. b. belliana, 3/6 (50%) captive Kwazulu-Natal G. p. pardalis, 2/41 (5%) wild G. p. babcocki and 13/37 (35%) captive Gauteng G. pardalis. In addition, Haemogregarina parvula Dias, 1953, infected 2/14 (14%) captive K. b. belliana and 1/10 (10%) captive G. p. pardalis. An unknown species of haemogregarine, possibly also H. fitzsimonsi occurred in 6/16 (38%) Chersina angulata from the Western Cape. As well as haemogregarines, two haemoproteids were identified: Haemoproteus balazuci Dias, 1953 infected 2/27 (7%) wild North West K. lobatsiana, 2/2 (100%) captive Gauteng K. lobatsiana and 1/41 (2%) wild North West G. p. babcocki; Haemoproteus sp., a likely new species, was found in 1/3 (33%) captive K. natalensis. Infections with Haemogregarina and Haemoproteus were not concurrent in this study, but were found to occur concurrently in Dias (1953) findings, and only the two Haemogregarina spp. occurred together in captive Kwazulu-Natal G. p. pardalis tortoises, which do not occur naturally in the region. Haemogregarina fitzsimonsi did not appear region or host specific, since it infected 5/6 species of tortoises from all provinces sampled. Haemogregarina parvula apparently existed only in tortoises from Kwazulu-Natal. Furthermore, captive Gauteng female tortoises were found to have a higher rate of infection than males and heavier tortoises showed a lower intensity infection than lighter and younger tortoises. On average season appeared to have a slight affect on parasite prevalence, with a higher prevalence during the summer rather than the winter, possibly a result of the activity of the assumed vector, which may be the tick species Amblyomma marmoreum (found on G. pardalis) and/or Amblyomma hebraeum (found on C. angulata). For the new Haemoproteus sp., the small sample size meant that meaningful data on host-specificity and range was not gathered, but Hp. balazuci occurred in K. lobatsiana in the drier regions of the North West and Gauteng. Although DNA extraction was possible for H. fitzsimonsi, the technique requires further refinement and samples with greater parasitemias before it can be used with additional material, and sequencing can be attempted. Thus, new localities, hosts, host data and possible vectors (ticks) were recorded for the apicomplexan species identified by Dias (1953) and they were re-described using modern techniques. Also, possibly new Haemogregarina and Haemoproteus spp. were recorded, but their identity requires confirmation by DNA analysis. It is anticipated that these, and future results, will increase the knowledge of the ecology and biodiversity of apicomplexan haematozoans parasitising chelonian hosts in South Africa, with possible application to the conservation of these and other tortoise species around the world.

<p>In this study I assessed the effect of objects and odors as environmental enrichment for two captive snow leopards (Uncia uncia) at Kolmården Wildlife Park. Five odors (lavender, lemon balm, cumin, cinnamon and catnip) were used to impregnate four different types of enrichment objects (boomer balls®, tennis balls, ropes, logs). During test sessions, one odorized and one non-odorized enrichment object of the same type were introduced in the snow leopards’ outdoor enclosure. The behavior, activity and location of the snow leopards were recorded and compared to their behavior during baseline sessions. During the test sessions I recorded the number and types of interactions with the enrichment objects. Both snow leopards interacted more often with odorized than with non-odorized enrichment objects. The number of interactions differed markedly between the types of enrichment objects and between the different odors. Both snow leopards interacted most often with boomer balls® and least often with logs. They interacted most often with cinnamon and least often with lemon balm (Brahma) and catnip (Binu). The results suggest that both the type of object and the odor play a role in capturing the interest of the snow leopards. The snow leopards behavioral diversity increased during the study and they could increase their performance of species-specific behavior. I did not see any indications of habituation during the testing period. The results indicate that enrichment objects impregnated with odors can be an effective environmental enrichment for captive snow leopards.</p>

In this study I assessed the effect of objects and odors as environmental enrichment for two captive snow leopards (Uncia uncia) at Kolmården Wildlife Park. Five odors (lavender, lemon balm, cumin, cinnamon and catnip) were used to impregnate four different types of enrichment objects (boomer balls®, tennis balls, ropes, logs). During test sessions, one odorized and one non-odorized enrichment object of the same type were introduced in the snow leopards’ outdoor enclosure. The behavior, activity and location of the snow leopards were recorded and compared to their behavior during baseline sessions. During the test sessions I recorded the number and types of interactions with the enrichment objects. Both snow leopards interacted more often with odorized than with non-odorized enrichment objects. The number of interactions differed markedly between the types of enrichment objects and between the different odors. Both snow leopards interacted most often with boomer balls® and least often with logs. They interacted most often with cinnamon and least often with lemon balm (Brahma) and catnip (Binu). The results suggest that both the type of object and the odor play a role in capturing the interest of the snow leopards. The snow leopards behavioral diversity increased during the study and they could increase their performance of species-specific behavior. I did not see any indications of habituation during the testing period. The results indicate that enrichment objects impregnated with odors can be an effective environmental enrichment for captive snow leopards.

Den svenska Försvarsmakten (FM) har förändrats och gått ifrån invasionsförsvar till insatsförsvar, detta har lett till att FM fokuserar på insatser utomlands och hotet skiljer sig insatser emellan. De konflikter som är aktuella idag och där de svenska styrkorna bidrar med resurser utspelar sig i länder där urban miljö med lågteknologisk motståndare förekommer. Motståndaren har med tiden lärt sig att hantera strider i urban miljö och uppträder i alla dimensioner. Man anser att strid i denna typ av miljö kommer att öka i framtiden. Stora nationer har stridit i urban miljö med framgång. Med tanke på var vi befinner oss idag när det gäller insatser av varierande grad har hotet ökat mot våra trupper vilket i sin tur har lett till ett större behov av skydd. Syftet med arbetet är att genom en kvalitativ textanalys (som är studiens tyngdpunkt) och en modellstudie påvisa hur man kan möta det nya hotet i urban terräng med hjälp av tekniska anpassningar på tyngre fordon som stridsvagnar. Under den beskrivande delen beskrivs hotbilden idag, erfarenheter från olika krig där stridsvagnar har nyttjats och stridsvagnens sårbarhet i urban miljö. Därefter behandlar modellstudien en tänkbar miljö och hot i syfte att ta fram den mest fördelaktiga anpassningen för att möta det nya hotet som utspelar sig i alla dimensioner. Resultatet visar att det största hotet som våra trupper utsätts för är den typ av hot där motståndare strävar efter att strida i urban miljö. Undersökningen visar att vi idag behöver mer skydd i form av pansar och de svenska stridsvagnarna behöver anpassas med olika system för att kunna möta dessa nya hot. / The Swedish Armed Forces (SAF) is currently in a phase of evolution transferring from being an old strategic defense to an expeditionary force. The SAF has forces deployed in several locations all over the world and the threat they meet is different from place to place, the conflicts often conducted by low-tech insurgents in urban terrain.The insurgents have learned how to fight in urban terrain and can operate in every dimension of the battlefield. It is believed that the battle in this type of environment will increase in future. Being where we are today in terms of operations the threat against our troops has increased which has led us to a greater need for protection.The purpose of this paper is that using a qualitative textual analysis and a model study to show how the new threat can be met in urban terrain with the help of technical adjustments on heavy vehicles such as tanks. At first the writer will describe the threat that is common in urban terrain today. Then the lessons learned from wars where tanks have been used and later on the tank’s vulnerability in urban terrain will be described. Thereafter, the model study will elaborate a potential environment and threat in order to highlight the most advantageous adjustment for tanks to meet the new threat.The result shows that the greatest threat that our troops are exposed to today is; battles that takes place in urban terrain. The study shows that we need more protection in form of armour. The Swedish tanks should be adapted with different systems to meet today’s threat in the urban terrain.

In addition to their original purpose as recreational areas, urban parks provide important habitats for species living in urban settings. Reconciling recreational and environmental goals is problematic, especially for park planners. RIM Park, in Waterloo, Ontario, is an example of this attempted reconciliation, where planners and managers attempted to conserve herpetofauna in a provincially significant wetland. However, this area includes a paved nature trail used by hikers, in-line skaters and cyclists and is adjacent to a golf course (which lies within the boundaries of the park). Herpetofauna breeding ponds were constructed and a series of culverts and clearspans included in order to provide reptiles and amphibians with safe passage under the trails. My objective was to determine whether these measures have been effective, whether the park sustains a viable population of Northern Leopard Frogs, and what factors influence frog populations in the park. Two spring field seasons involving mark and recapture techniques were attempted to estimate population sizes of Northern Leopard Frogs at RIM Park, as well as control sites. In both seasons, a control site was a cedar swamp 14 km to the west of the park within an Environmentally Sensitive Policy Area in Waterloo city limits affected by housing development and shared trails. Also within Waterloo city limits, a storm water management pond 8 km to the west was added in field season two. In 2005 (field season 1), because there was a serious drought almost no Northern Leopard Frogs were captured at the two sites examined ? RIM Park and the cedar swamp. In 2006, the more "normal" weather conditions revealed that RIM Park had significantly fewer Northern Leopard Frogs than either of the control sites. Given the lack of data in year 1, I compared the 2006 results to seven years of monitoring reports on RIM Park from consultants. The 2006 data were consistent with previous reports of small Northern Leopard Frog populations at RIM Park. Mark and recapture sessions revealed relatively low numbers, with a catch average of 4. 33 (SD = 1. 15). Calculations revealed an estimated population of 23 (SE = 13. 42). The highest number of observed Northern Leopard Frogs ever recorded at the same location in consulting reports is 5. It is likely that the ponds at RIM Park do not support breeding in Northern Leopard Frogs as the only adults caught were late in the season, during the last week of May, and adults likely were transients from the nearby wetlands and uplands. It is possible, given the historical monitoring data, that the Northern Leopard Frogs were long absent from RIM Park because of intensive farming activities that had replaced the wetlands, and that construction of the golf course and trails further precluded colonization. The lack of adult frogs in the breeding ponds and the lack of dead or injured frogs on the trails or golf course support the hypothesis that the trails are not presently causing frog mortality. It is possible that the frogs are avoiding recolonizing the trail and golf course area. It is also likely that the breeding ponds need to be deepened and only then will it be apparent whether the frogs will colonize the ponds, lay eggs, and use the clearspans and culverts. Recommendations include a shift in priorities to put the emphasis on restoration, a discussion of restoration options (including a possible restoration plan), possible improvements in amphibian monitoring techniques (such as reducing the reliance on audio methods), and general suggestions for urban park planning and management.

In addition to their original purpose as recreational areas, urban parks provide important habitats for species living in urban settings. Reconciling recreational and environmental goals is problematic, especially for park planners. RIM Park, in Waterloo, Ontario, is an example of this attempted reconciliation, where planners and managers attempted to conserve herpetofauna in a provincially significant wetland. However, this area includes a paved nature trail used by hikers, in-line skaters and cyclists and is adjacent to a golf course (which lies within the boundaries of the park). Herpetofauna breeding ponds were constructed and a series of culverts and clearspans included in order to provide reptiles and amphibians with safe passage under the trails. My objective was to determine whether these measures have been effective, whether the park sustains a viable population of Northern Leopard Frogs, and what factors influence frog populations in the park. Two spring field seasons involving mark and recapture techniques were attempted to estimate population sizes of Northern Leopard Frogs at RIM Park, as well as control sites. In both seasons, a control site was a cedar swamp 14 km to the west of the park within an Environmentally Sensitive Policy Area in Waterloo city limits affected by housing development and shared trails. Also within Waterloo city limits, a storm water management pond 8 km to the west was added in field season two. In 2005 (field season 1), because there was a serious drought almost no Northern Leopard Frogs were captured at the two sites examined ? RIM Park and the cedar swamp. In 2006, the more "normal" weather conditions revealed that RIM Park had significantly fewer Northern Leopard Frogs than either of the control sites. Given the lack of data in year 1, I compared the 2006 results to seven years of monitoring reports on RIM Park from consultants. The 2006 data were consistent with previous reports of small Northern Leopard Frog populations at RIM Park. Mark and recapture sessions revealed relatively low numbers, with a catch average of 4. 33 (SD = 1. 15). Calculations revealed an estimated population of 23 (SE = 13. 42). The highest number of observed Northern Leopard Frogs ever recorded at the same location in consulting reports is 5. It is likely that the ponds at RIM Park do not support breeding in Northern Leopard Frogs as the only adults caught were late in the season, during the last week of May, and adults likely were transients from the nearby wetlands and uplands. It is possible, given the historical monitoring data, that the Northern Leopard Frogs were long absent from RIM Park because of intensive farming activities that had replaced the wetlands, and that construction of the golf course and trails further precluded colonization. The lack of adult frogs in the breeding ponds and the lack of dead or injured frogs on the trails or golf course support the hypothesis that the trails are not presently causing frog mortality. It is possible that the frogs are avoiding recolonizing the trail and golf course area. It is also likely that the breeding ponds need to be deepened and only then will it be apparent whether the frogs will colonize the ponds, lay eggs, and use the clearspans and culverts. Recommendations include a shift in priorities to put the emphasis on restoration, a discussion of restoration options (including a possible restoration plan), possible improvements in amphibian monitoring techniques (such as reducing the reliance on audio methods), and general suggestions for urban park planning and management.

The transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ)/activin signaling pathway has a number of documented roles during wound healing and is becoming increasingly appreciated as a vital component of multi-tissue regeneration. The leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) is able to spontaneously, and repeatedly, regenerate its tail following tail loss. We thus examined the expression and localization of several key components of the TGFβ/activin signaling pathway during tail regeneration of the leopard gecko. We observed a marked increase in phosphorylated-Smad2 expression among regenerating tissues corresponding to the location of the regenerate blastema. Interestingly, we observe that during early regeneration there appears to be an absence of TGFβ family member TGFβ1 and instead a strong upregulation of activin-βA. We also observe the expression of EMT transcription factors Snail1 and Snail2 in blastemal tissue. These observations combined with other data provide strong support for the importance of unique and non-overlapping expression patterns of different TGFβ ligands during multi-tissue regeneration

The conservation of leopards in the Eastern Cape Province requires a holistic approach that considers both predator-human interactions as well as the biology of the carnivore. Numerous studies have been conducted on leopards within protected areas; however more information regarding the species is needed outside these areas to facilitate effective management of predators. The spatial ecology of the leopard (Panthera pardus) were studied in the Baviaanskloof and GAENP in the Eastern Cape. The Baviaanskloof is an extensive area of mountainous terrain (approximately 2665km²) which has a mosaic of land uses, and leopards move from conservation areas to farmland where they come into contact and conflict with farmers. This study examined the spatial ecology of leopards living on farmlands adjacent to protected land. The space utilization and activity patterns of six leopards were analysed. These animals were caught and released on farmlands in the Baviaanskloof (n=4) or translocated (n=2) when not possible to release on site. The animals were caught by means of fall-door, walk-in traps and fitted with Vectronic GPS collars that facilitated the collection of high quality GPS fixes from each animal. Data was collected using VHF and UHF telemetry to download data. An understanding of spatial requirements in areas with different land use, and the extent of overlap of space use with other leopards allow, for the first time in the region, the calculation of possible maximum population size. Analysis of range size was carried out using two methods: minimum convex polygon, and Kernel Utilization Distribution. Finally, a key predictor of space use is prey availability. I assessed the prey base using a grid of camera traps. The studied leopards revealed large range utilization with minimal overlap. The activity patterns suggest there is no preference between diurnal and nocturnal activity patterns and the population density was estimated between 0.3 - 1.3 leopards per 100km². Large home range sizes and low population densities suggest that leopards require large areas of suitable habitat, and that conservation efforts need to be extended beyond protected areas to ensure the long-term viability of leopard populations in such areas.

Leopards Panthera pardus are highly adaptable large felids that persist in un-protected areas throughout South Africa. However, leopards are frequently involved in conflict with land users and subsequently killed in retaliatory incidents. Efforts to foster tolerance for leopard conservation largely rely on trophy hunting and ecotourism. However there is growing concern that trophy hunting may lead to population declines. Combining this with shortages of demographic data generates serious conservation challenges for wildlife managers. In this thesis, I evaluated the viability of the South African leopard population using simulation models and empirically collected data. I further evaluated the response of people engaged in retaliatory killing of leopards and leopard trophy hunters to varying leopard abundance. A habitat suitability model suggested that current suitable leopard habitat is fragmented and that the majority exists on non-protected areas. The national protected area system was largely ineffective in capturing suitable leopard habitat. Stochastic population models suggested unsustainable harvest levels at the current levels of retaliatory killing. Furthermore, simulations with only non-harvest related anthropogenic mortality also produced high probabilities of decline, indicating that non-harvest related anthropogenic mortality, such as retaliatory killings, can significantly impact the sustainability of harvest and the viability of the South African leopard population. Likewise survival analysis indicated that leopard survival in non-protected areas was significantly lower than in protected areas, and that humans were responsible for the majority of leopard deaths in non-protected areas. Finally retaliatory killing occurred at a higher rate of killing at low leopard abundances compared to hunting. Therefore retaliatory killing of leopards are more likely to be detrimental to leopard populations than trophy hunting. My findings strongly suggest that non-protected areas are important for leopard conservation, but that conflict in these areas currently may limit their conservation potential. I therefore suggest that the control of retaliatory killing of leopards may be more effective in promoting leopard persistence than restricting trophy harvest. Furthermore, conservation actions that aim to foster increased participation by the private sector, representing non-protected areas, in large carnivore conservation initiatives may be particularly beneficial to the long term conservation of leopards. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2013 / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / restricted

<p>Perfluoroalkyl substances are synthetic organic chemicals of environmental concern because they have been associated with adverse effects in both human epidemiological studies and standard laboratory animals. In the environment, PFAS occur as mixtures, especially in areas with a history of PFAS application, such as aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) sites. Among the PFAS, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS) are the most common, and occur at the highest concentrations. Thus, amphibian populations at or near AFFF sites are at risk of exposure to known bioaccumulative and persistent chemicals, likely compromising the physiology and body condition of the animals. Here, we exposed northern leopard frogs to environmentally relevant concentrations of 0.5 and 1 ppb PFOS and PFHxS, alone or as a mixture comprised of 0.5 ppb PFOS and 0.5 ppb PFHxS. Univariate analyses showed that in the larval stages, tadpoles exposed to PFAS had significantly reduced scaled mass indexes (SMI’s) relative to the control, and only the organisms exposed to PFHxS 0.5 ppb were significantly larger. Sex did not significantly influence toxicity in the later stages (GS 42 & 46), indicating no sex-related effects. Altered body condition (i.e., fat stores) in the larval stages indicate potential effects to energy balance. There is a need to assess fitness-related effects as amphibians’ transition into the terrestrial environment, and include endpoints such as: reproductive, developmental, immunological, mating, feeding, competition, and survival. Early developmental effects in the larval stages also suggests that earlier developmental endpoints may be of interest. Establishing ecological risk assessments for PFAS are necessary, as they are toxic, persistent, and bioaccumulative.</p>