The purposes of the study were to describe how ten infants who ranged from five to thirteen months old responded to books in a day care setting over a five month period, to explore how teachers supported and/or constrained infants' response behaviors, and to understand teachers' and parents' beliefs about infants' capabilities to respond to books. The qualitative methods of participant-observation, formal and informal interviews, written field notes, audiotapes, videotapes, and photography were used for data collection. The results indicated that the infants were able to respond to books through facial expressions, body movements, and verbal responses. They were active in initiating book reading, and were able to show their book preferences. They tended to look for familiar objects and details in illustrations rather than pay attention to the whole content. After being exposed to book reading events, these infants developed positive attitude and skills toward reading. Gradually, book reading events were no longer solely controlled by the teachers, it became joint teacher-infant participation. The results showed that teachers supported infants' book reading in various ways. They made books accessible to the infants, and respected infants' different levels of interest in books. Through scaffolding and language extension, they provided a framework to allow infants to be involved in interactions during book reading. Meanwhile, teachers also encountered various constraints when engaging infants in book reading in a day care setting. The data also revealed that the parents exposed their infants to books at a very early age with various purposes. They made conscious efforts to make book reading enjoyable experiences for their children. Both parents and teachers perceived book reading as an important activity for infants and believed in infants' capabilities to respond to books. This study further elaborated implications for day care teachers and parents which build on its findings.

The present study investigates whether consonant and vowel information make different contributions at the early stage of visual word recognition. In linguistics, the distinction between consonants and vowels has been formalized in the modern theory of phonology, which assumes separate representation and processing of consonants and vowels (e.g., Clements & Keyser, 1983; Durand, 1990; Goldsmith, 1990). In cognitive psychology, such a distinction has been suggested generally in the notion of “islands of reliability”, regarding consonant information as more reliable backbones of word processing at the early stage (Carr & Pollatsek, 1995; Perfetti & McCutchen, 1992; Brown & Besner, 1987). This notion has been more specifically formulated in the two cycles model of phonology assembly (Berent and Perfetti, 1995). The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relative contribution of consonants and vowels in word recognition in silent reading through two different experimental paradigms. In the missing letter paradigm used in Experiments 1 and 2, fixation times on a word during reading were examined as a function of the condition and duration of the missing letter. If consonants have an earlier advantage over vowels in word processing, then missing a consonant should yield a greater cost (i.e., longer fixation times) than missing a vowel. In the fast priming paradigm used in Experiment 3, the relation of the prime and target words was manipulated in terms of consonant and vowel similarity. The consonant-vowel distinction was then estimated in the different priming effects as a function of prime-target relation. The results from the three experiments in this dissertation, in line with the findings of Berent and Perfetti (1995), strongly indicate that there is a clear temporal distinction between consonants and vowels in their contribution to word identification in normal reading. Consonants plays a more important role than vowels in the early stage of word processing. This was demonstrated in Experiments 1 and 2 by the longer fixation time on the target word when the consonant was missing than when the vowel was missing for a brief duration (30 ms) from the onset of the word, and was demonstrated in Experiment 3 by the shorter fixation time on the target word when the prime word was more similar to the target word in terms of consonant similarity than in terms of vowel similarity at the 30 ms prime duration. Further, the results from Experiment 3 suggest that lexicality plays a significant role in the consonant-vowel distinction: the early consonant-vowel distinction was observed only when the prime was a high frequency word.

Previous research has found that when a word like “clam” is presented at the foveal level, its transposed-letter neighbor “calm” is also activated. This activation of multiple lexical candidates causes interference in naming and lexical decision tasks. Here, four eye-tracking experiments were conducted to explore the nature of transposed-letter (TL) neighborhood effects within the context of normal silent reading. Experiments 1 and 2 addressed the processing of target words that have a transposed-letter neighbor (e.g., angel, angle) in comparison to target words that do not have a transposed-letter neighbor (e.g., alien, slope ). Furthermore, Experiment 2 manipulated the sentence context leading up to the target word to explore whether semantic constraints can attenuate neighborhood interference effects. The results indicated that readers do take longer to process words that have a TL neighbor than words that do not have a TL neighbor. This interference effect, however, disappeared when the beginning of the sentence was constraining such that only one of the two members of the TL pair was likely. While both Experiments 1 and 2 explored effects at the foveal level, Experiments 3 and 4 explored the parafoveal processing of transposed-letter neighbors by employing an eye-movement-contingent boundary change paradigm. In Experiment 3, readers received a parafoveal preview of a TL target word that was either (1) identical to the target word (e.g., calm as the preview of calm), (2) a TL-neighbor (e.g., clam) or (3) a substituted-letter (SL) control (e.g., chem). In Experiment 4, a further set of parafoveal preview conditions was explored. Across both experiments, readers' fixation durations on the target words were significantly longer when the parafoveal previews were substituted-letter nonwords than when they were TL neighbors, suggesting that TL neighbors (when presented in the parafovea) facilitate word recognition, rather than inhibit processing. Collectively, these experiments indicate that TL neighborhood interference effects do occur in normal silent reading, but these effects occur late and are influenced by sentence constraints.

The purpose of the study was to determine whether or not elementary classroom teachers’ exploration of an integrated theoretical model of formative assessment would change participants’ understandings of formative assessment and whether or not participants would apply this newly-acquired knowledge to their classroom assessment practices. After exploring elements of formative assessment in a collaborative study group, participants applied new understandings to their classroom assessment practices. The model of formative assessment explored by the study group included these elements: the articulation of clear learning outcomes, the alignment of instruction and assessment to learning outcomes; the providing of feedback to students and using feedback to plan future instruction; and the involvement of students in classroom assessment practices. Previous research on formative assessment has demonstrated the importance of individual elements of formative assessment. This case study provided teachers with an integrated theoretical model that included all of the elements of formative assessment identified in the research literature and used this model as the basis for professional development to change teachers’ classroom practice. Data were gathered through surveys, study group transcripts, participant reflections, classroom observations, interviews with students and documents from individual classrooms. Data were analyzed using a constant comparative method in an effort to identify categories and themes that emerged for changes in teachers’ understandings and classroom practices for each of the elements of formative assessment. Results of the study indicate that the collaborative study group changed teachers’ understandings of the elements of formative assessment, the important relationships among the elements and the teachers’ classroom formative assessment practices. The collaborative study group also provided participants with a supportive environment in which to share their experiences as they attempted to implement new assessment practices in their classrooms.

A theory is presented to explain the reading patterns found among dyslexics through a single process of encoding representations binding phonology and orthography of units of varying numbers of letters within the lexical repertoire. Dyslexia is explained as a function of lack of clarity in the phonological input, resulting in more tenuously bound orthographical-phonological representations. With extensive exposure to the proper phonological input such bound representations can be formed, but the process is very effortful compared to that among unimpaired readers. In order to demonstrate this claim it is necessary to show that errors among dyslexics occur more frequently in low-frequency words, that more sound-related errors are made, that substitution errors are phonetically close to the proper sounds and that the LATAS intervention, which involves memorization of lists of words, would cause the word parts contained on the memorized lists to have correspondingly fewer errors when they are contained in words read by the individuals than other, non-practiced word parts. The paper proposes ways in which to test these claims.

Formative assessment measures are commonly used in schools to assess early literacy skills as indicators of reading acquisition and to design instruction accordingly. The purpose of this research was to investigate the incremental predictive validity of formative assessment measures of reading comprehension. It was hypothesized that formative measures of reading comprehension will contribute more to our understanding of students' overall reading abilities than simply Oral Reading Fluency (ORF). It was also hypothesized that these measures can be modeled in a meaningful way to explain student performance on criterion measures of academic competence. Four formative measures of reading comprehension---Maze (MZ), Retell Fluency (RTF), Written Retell (WRT), and Sentence Verification Technique (SVT)---were used to measure unique aspects of reading comprehension through production-type responses in an efficient and instructionally meaningful way. The Group Reading Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation (GRADE) was used as a measure of overall reading proficiency while the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) was used as a measure of academic competence. Data were collected from 111 fourth grade students from two Western Massachusetts elementary schools. Four multiple regression equations were computed to test the hypothesis that measures of reading comprehension will contribute more to our understanding of reading proficiency than ORF alone. Each measure significantly predicted performance on GRADE above and beyond that predicted by ORF. A larger multiple regression equation was used to evaluate which measure predicted a unique and significant proportion of the variance in reading proficiency. The MZ, SVT and WRT were significant predictors in the model. Using the measures found to be significant with ORF, a logistic regression analysis was computed to evaluate how reliably the newly constructed model predicted a pass or fail status on the fourth grade English Language Arts section of MCAS. None of the predictors were significant. An additional multiple regression analysis was computed to predict MCAS performance and the newly constructed model of reading proficiency. This model predicted approximately .66 of the variability in MCAS performance.

Reading is a skill that unlocks the doors of learning and success. It is commonly accepted that reading is a foundational skill that plays a major role in a child's academic success. The history of teaching reading includes many theories about the development of reading, the source of reading difficulties, and interventions for remediation. A large body of research has demonstrated that reading difficulties stem from a phonological basis and interventions that target this area are generally beneficial in helping improving reading skills (National Reading Panel, 2000; Shaywitz, 2003; Stanovich, 1986). However, there are some who even with extensive intervention continue to struggle to read. Helen Irlen (2005) proposed that these people may experience visual-perceptual distortions when reading high-contrast text (black on white background). Irlen claims that symptoms of this disorder, termed Scotopic Sensitivity or Irlen Syndrome, can be alleviated by the use of color overlays or filters (tinted glasses). Research into the existence of this syndrome and the effectiveness of the overlays and filters to remediate reading problems has been inconsistent and criticized for lacking scientific rigor and heavy reliance on subject report of improvement. The present study seeks to evaluate differences that may exist in eye movements and reading fluency when subjects diagnosed with IS read text with and without color overlays. Participants were screened with the Irlen Reading Perceptual Scale (IRPS) to determine whether or not they suffered from the syndrome. From this screening, participants chose an overlay reported to alleviate distortions or discomfort they experienced when reading. They were then asked to read 18 passages under three conditions—with a clear overlay, with their chosen overlay, and with a random overlay—while their eye movements were recorded. Results indicated that participants showed no improvement in eye movement or reading fluency when they read passages with an optimum (chosen) overlay verses a clear overlay or a random overlay.

Many children who are severely speech and physically impaired (SSPI) are unsuccessful in developing literacy (Koppenhaver, 1991; Light, 1991). Yet there is increasing recognition that SSPI children are capable of developing sophisticated reading and writing skills (Creech, 1988; Kelford-Smith, 1989; Koppenhaver & Yoder, 1991; Light & Lindsey, 1990). In addition to current cognitive studies about the literacy development of SSPI children, studies are needed from other perspectives. A new and emerging research perspective of literacy development among general education students views reading and writing as social and cultural phenomena. Such a perspective has promise for understanding the literacy development and practices of SSPI students. This study involved two SSPI children and their reading/writing activities during the first semester of the 1991-1992 school year. Methods used in the study included participant observation, interviewing, and videotaping. A multi-step analysis process was used, consisting of (1) thematic analysis, (2) componential analysis, and (3) sociolinguistic microanalysis. The use of these analytic techniques and the interpretation of findings is guided by theoretical constructs from sociolinguistic ethnography and recent studies of literacy as a social process. Among the findings are (1) the social construction of reading and writing. The mechanisms contributing to social construction were social recognition and acknowledgement, mediation, and communication structure. (2) The development of identities as readers and writers. The terms used to label SSPI students within the reading/writing groups, the title given the group, the language used to construct various social roles within the reading/writing groups, the focus on attending within the group, and body posturing contributed to the construction of the SSPI students' identities as readers and writers. (3) Differing definitions of reading and purposes for the lessons. (4) Miscommunications during lessons due to differences in definitions of reading. (5) Ways that SSPI students show communicative competency within the communication structure of the reading/writing lessons. Implications are given for the relationship of communication technology to interaction, methods of facilitation of reading and writing interactions, and the relationship of literacy and social acceptance of SSPI students in classrooms.

This qualitative study focused on ten middle school dropouts, and their personal experiences. Ten middle school dropouts were interviewed to examine their personal experiences rather than from the vantage points of teachers and the educated professionals. Two major findings were found: (a) the causes that underlined the subjects actions and (b) methods to rectify the problem. Our technologically advanced society requires many years of schooling for its citizens. The present job market requires students to obtain an education that is equivalent to a high school diploma in order to compete in the work force. The focus of this study as forementioned was to examine the students personal experiences before making a decision to drop out of school. The data was intended to bring about an awareness of the existing dropout problems among teachers and educators. The findings indicate the characteristics and causes of the middle school dropout problem, as well as preventive measures, which revolve around greater flexibility and understanding of the needs of at-risk students in the public school system. Research indicates the need for educators to rethink and restructure the curriculums and teaching methods as well as teacher training to meet the needs of at-risk students. Research further suggests that endeavors be made to counter the dropout problem; and then attempt to prepare students for a successful and productive adult life. According to research the lack of sensitivity and preventive measures among educators have caused widespread dropout problems in public schools. In addition the dropout problem is compounded by teacher-student conflicts as well as tension and humiliation among students. The dropout population accepts unemployment as normal. Furthermore, they treat dropouts as normal, and in many circumstances, even positive. The preventive measures found in this study emphasize (a) small class size, (b) common planning and meeting time for staff, (c) collaboration with at-risk students, (d) a partnership with the outside community resources, and (e) an intimate home/school communication in an attempt to deal effectively with the dropout problem.

This study examined the effects of cross-age tutoring on the reading achievement of thirty second graders and their tutors' levels of performance. Additionally, the study assessed whether the role of tutors raised the academic performance of those younger students in the tutoring program. Participants in the study were academically, economically, and socially deficient. This study involved African American students from an urban public school in an after school tutoring program for two months. The students were paired during the tutoring sessions. They were administered the Morrison-McCall Diagnostic Spelling Scale pretests and posttests. Analysis of variance was used to compare and assess the levels of performance of the tutored and untutored groups. Overall, participants in the cross-age tutoring study produced remarkable gains of mastery in their reading achievement performances. This achievement was determined through the use of the Morrison-McCall Diagnostic Spelling Scale Test, which was administered to all students prior to the beginning of the program and at the end of the tutoring sessions. The results indicated significant gains made by the tutored group of students. Students in the study improved their reading, spelling, writing and comprehension skills. The effects of cross-age tutoring on the achievement level of the tutored group was successful. The posttest findings regarding level of reading improvement were increased. The results were used to make recommendations relative to the efficacy of cross-age tutoring as an instructional strategy for improving and measuring the achievement levels of "underachieving" African American students. Previous findings suggested that cross-age tutoring programs have been a positive choice of intervention for underachieving students in some school districts. As a result of cross-age tutoring, students elevated (independent or in a group setting) their level of academic performances. Thus, the study determined that cross-age tutoring has provided students with the academic tools to "carry over" to the daily mastery of skills at school to enhance accomplishments.