The work presented in this thesis is devoted to the study of mechanism of tyre force generation and its influence on handling dynamics of ground vehicles. The main part of the work involves the development of tyre models for use under steady-state and transient operating conditions. The general capability of these models is assessedin a full vehicle simulation environment. The interaction between tyre and vehicle dynamics is critically evaluated and the observed vehicle behaviour is related to the inherent characteristics of different tyre models. In the field of steady-state tyre modelling, two versions of a numerical tyre model are developed. The modelling procedure is carried out in accordance with the viscoelastic properties of rubber, which influence the mechanical properties of the tyre structure and play a significant role in the determination of friction in the tyre contact patch. Whilst the initial simple version of the tyre model assumes a parabolic pressure distribution along the contact, a later more elaborate model employs a numerical method for the calculation of the actual normal pressure distribution. The changes in the pressure distribution as a result of variations in the rolling velocity and normal load influence mainly the levels of self-aligning moment, whilst the force characteristics remain practically unaffected. The adoption of a velocity dependent friction law explains the force generating behaviour of tyres at high sliding velocities. The analysis is extended to the area of transient tyre behaviour with the development of a tyre model appropriate for the study of transient friction force generation within the contact patch. The model incorporates viscoelasticity and inertial contributions, and incorporates a numerical stick-slip law. These characteristics are combined together for the successful simulation of transient friction force generation. The methodologies developed for the modelling of transient friction and steady-state tyre force generation are combined and further extended in order to create a generic transient tyre model. This final model incorporates a discretised flexible viscoelastic belt with inertia and a separate fully-dynamic discretised tread, also with inertia and damping, for the simulation of actual prevailing conditions in the contact patch. The generic tyre model appears to be capable of performing under a variety of operating conditions, including periodic excitations and transient inputs which extend to the non-linear range of tyre behaviour. For the evaluation of the influence of the aforementioned tyre models on the handling responses of a vehicle, a comprehensive vehicle model is developed, appropriate for use in handling simulations. The two versions of the steady-state models and the generic transient model are interfaced with the vehicle model, and the response of the vehicle to a step-steer manoeuvre is compared with that obtained using the Magic Formula tyre model. The comparison between the responses is facilitated by the definition of a new measure, defined as the non-dimensional yaw impulse. It is found that the transience involved in tyre behaviour may largely affect the response of a vehicle to a prescribed input.

Except for aerodynamics forces, all vehicle excitation forces are generated at the tyre-road interface. Considering low speed applications, such as terramechanics where the aerodynamics force are negligible, the road-tyre interaction is of extreme importance. Crucial variables which govern the forces generated at the tyre-road interface are tyre side-slip angle, tyre longitudinal slip ratio and terrain pro le. Solutions to measure these variables exist for smooth hard roads but the solutions experience challenges on rough and o -road terrain. Digital Image Correlation is concerned with tracking the changes of a scene in a sequence of images or in images obtained from multiple viewpoints. These methods are frequently used in micro and nano-scale mechanical testing due to its ease of implementation and use as well as its non-contact approach. As a result these techniques are being implemented in many elds from material testing, physics, lm animations and engineering. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the applications of Digital Image Correlation in vehicle dynamics using cost e cient o -the-shelf digital cameras and lenses. The following three vehicle dynamic problems are investigated: The measurement of the vehicle side-slip angle, longitudinal slip-ratio of a pneumatic tyre and high delity terrain pro ling. The vehicle side-slip angle can be used as a measure of the vehicle stability and therefore be used to improve the e ectiveness of vehicle stability controllers. The tyre side-slip angle is also a vital measurement in characterising the lateral force characteristics of pneumatic tyres. A planar measuring method using Digital Image Correlation is shown to accurately measure the side-slip angle. The method is expanded by developing two additional algorithms which can measure all translational and rotational velocities. These methods are validated on both smooth surfaces and rough o -road terrain. A method is also implemented whereby the longitudinal slip ratio of a tyre can be measured using a single camera. Therefore, doing away with the conventional method of using three independent measurement systems. Features in the contact patch, encompassing both the tyre and the road, are tracked in a sequence of images. The features are classi ed into features lying on the tyre, road and outliers using a clustering algorithm. This enables the system to determine the tyre and road velocities from which the slip ratio is determined. High delity terrain pro ling is performed using a calibrated stereographic rig to obtain a three dimensional point cloud of the scene which is being viewed. The point cloud generated at one sample contains a grid of points encompassing a large area with points spaced both laterally and longitudinally. Overlapping point clouds are generated and joined using various registration techniques. The joined point clouds are sub-sampled to obtain a regularised grid of point containing a single point cloud of non overlapping points. The proposed techniques create new possibilities in the eld of vehicle dynamics. Enabling the side-slip angle to be measured in rough of road conditions while providing additional measurements. The longitudinal slip ratio which is measured directly at the contact patch could pave the way for better understanding the mechanism of the longitudinal tyre force generation. The inexpensive road pro ling systems enables multiple sensors to be used in terramechanics tests to determine the impact of a vehicle on the environment. The thesis presents the mere tip of the ice berg concerning digital image correlation used in vehicle dynamics with many more possibilities waiting to be discovered. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2015 / Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering / PhD / Unrestricted

El fallo resistente de las losas mixtas se produce generalmente por el deslizamiento longitudinal entre la chapa nervada de acero y el hormigón. La dificultad de diseño de chapas para losas mixtas reside en asegurar su comportamiento efectivamente mixto; en diseñar sistemas de retención que consigan una elevada resistencia al deslizamiento longitudinal relativo entre acero y hormigón.Para cumplir las funciones encomendadas a la chapa, encofrado perdido y armadura de tracción, existen muchos tipos de diseño, creados sobre la base de la experiencia acumulada y cuya eficacia debe siempre ser evaluada empíricamente.Los actuales diseños de chapas incorporan un patrón de embuticiones que se repiten a lo largo de toda la longitud de la chapa. Su función es dificultar el deslizamiento longitudinal, análogamente al corrugado de las barras para el armado del hormigón, pero sus mecanismos resistentes son completamente distintos. En las losas mixtas, el efecto de cuña de las embuticiones transforma el deslizamiento en esfuerzos perpendiculares a la chapa que provocan su flexión transversal y, en algunos casos, la desconexión total.El ángulo de conformado que define los nervios de la losa, la posición de las embuticiones, su profundidad, longitud, etc., son algunos de los parámetros importantes de diseño, ya que contribuyen significativamente a bloquear el deslizamiento. El proceso de diseño y optimización de esta geometría, y también la comprobación de su eficacia, se realiza actualmente de forma completamente empírica. También los métodos de cálculo adoptados por las normativas de todo el mundo para el cálculo de losas mixtas, están basados en parámetros experimentales, obtenidos del ensayo de modelos estándar reducidos. Estos ensayos intentan reproducir, con mayor o menor fidelidad, las condiciones reales de funcionamiento.Esta tesis se enmarca en una línea de investigación destinada a mejorar la conexión entre el acero y el hormigón de los actuales sistemas e idear conceptos innovadores que, a más largo plazo, puedan significar la conexión total sin deslizamiento.Se han desarrollado dos actividades principales:- Experimental: ensayos reducidos de Pull-out y ensayos de flexión de losas completas según método normativo m-k, instrumentadas con galgas extensométricas.- Numérica: establecimiento de un procedimiento validado para la elaboración de modelos tridimensionales de elementos finitos. Simulación del fallo por deslizamiento y estudio paramétrico descriptivo.Con el objetivo general de aportar conocimiento y afianzar la comprensión del comportamiento mecánico de la losa mixta, la tesis aborda el estudio numérico y experimental del fallo por deslizamiento longitudinal, consiguiéndose las siguientes aportaciones particulares:- Procedimiento de simulación numérica local tridimensional y no-lineal del deslizamiento entre la chapa de acero y el hormigón, con el que se describe exactamente la mecánica de funcionamiento de algunos diseños existentes en el mercado.- Análisis del efecto que tienen distintos parámetros físicos y geométricos en la resistencia de la losa mixta frente al deslizamiento longitudinal: rozamiento, profundidad de embutición, longitud, posición, ángulo de conformado, espesor de la chapa, etc., mediante los modelos de elementos finitos.- Evaluación, mediante los modelos numéricos, del perfil de distribución de tensiones longitudinales en tracción simple, con el fin de cuantificar las sombras de tensión que provocan las embuticiones,- Evaluación de la influencia de las condiciones superficiales de la chapa durante el hormigonado en la resistencia al deslizamiento.- Evaluación de la uniformidad de distribución de esfuerzos rasantes transmitidos por las embuticiones. Las losas ensayadas a flexión se han instrumentado, en los tramos de luz rasante, con galgas extensométricas fijadas en varias secciones situadas a distintas distancias de los apoyos.- Recomendaciones generales de diseño. Aplicación al diseño del nuevo perfil "T80" y ensayo.El nuevo perfil "T80", ha sido ya producido en serie, comercializado y puesto en obra en edificios de gran altura, presentando resultados muy satisfactorios. / The resistant failure of composite slabs is generally due to longitudinal slip between the profiled steel sheet and concrete. The main goal when designing sheets for composite slabs, consists of ensuring its effective composite behaviour; conceiving retention systems that achieve higher longitudinal slip strengths.To carry out these functions entrusted to steel sheet, i.e. permanent formwork and traction reinforcement, lots of design types are available, created on the basis of prior experience and which effectiveness has to be evaluated empirically.Current sheet designs show a repeating embossments pattern all along the span. Its function is to inhibit the longitudinal slip in a similar way than the reinforcing bar corrugations for concrete; however, their resistant mechanisms are quite different. In the case of the composite slabs, the embossments wedge effect transforms the slip to normal efforts that produce the transversal bending of the sheet and, sometimes, the connection loss.The profiling shape that defines the ribs of the slab, the embossment locations, its depth, length, etc. are some of the main parameters that significantly contributes to lock the slip.Currently, the design and optimization processes for the geometry, and also the checking of its effectiveness, are just empirically evaluated.In the same way, also the composite slabs calculation methods adopted by all national and international standards are based on experimental parameters, obtained from the test of reduced specimens. These tests attempt to reproduce the real behaviour conditions.The framework of this thesis is a research line devoted to improve the longitudinal shear connection between steel and concrete of the current designs as well as conceive innovative concepts that might achieve the permanent connection.Two main activities have been developed:- Experimental: reduced Pull-out tests and standard m-k bending tests, with the use of strain gauges technology.- Numerical: state a validated procedure for making parametrical 3D non-linear finite elements models to simulate the failure micro-mechanics due to longitudinal slip. Within the global aim of improving the knowledge and to strengthen the comprehension of the micro-mechanical behaviour of the composite slabs, this thesis approach the numerical and experimental analysis of the longitudinal slip failure micro-mechanics, achieving the following particular contributions:- Stating a procedure for creating non-linear 3D finite elements models to simulate the slip between steel sheet and concrete, by which the failure mechanics of several existing designs has been exactly described and analysed.- Analysis of the shear strength dependency on several physical and geometrical parameters, such as: friction coefficient, embossment depth, length, location, profiling angle, sheet thickness, etc., by means of the above said FEM procedure.- Evaluation, by FEM, of the distribution of longitudinal stresses in simple traction, for quantifying the stress shadows due to embossments.- Effect of the sheet surface conditions, prior to setting the concrete, in the longitudinal shear strength.- Distribution analysis of the longitudinal shear forces transmitted by the embossments all along the shear span. Strain gauges have been bonded to the free steel surface of several composite slabs, in different locations along the shear span.- General design recommendations. Pre-design, optimization and test of the new "T80" open-rib profile.This new "T80" profile is being manufactured, commercialized, and used in many outstanding buildings and skyscrapers, showing very good results in comparison to other existing open-rib designs.