Globally, there are vast amounts of low-grade heat sources from industrial waste and renewables that can be converted into electricity through advanced thermodynamic power cycles and appropriate working fluids. In this thesis, experimental research was conducted to investigate the performance of a small-scale Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) system under different operating conditions. The experimental setup consisted of typical ORC system components, such as a turboexpander with a high speed generator, a scroll expander, a finned-tube condenser, an ORC pump, a plate evaporator and a shell and tube evaporator. R245fa was selected as the working fluid, on account of its appropriate thermophysical properties for the ORC system and its low ozone depletion potential (ODP). The test rig was fully instrumented and extensive experiments carried out to examine the influences of several important parameters, including heat source temperature, ORC pump speed, heat sink flow velocity, different evaporators and with or without a recuperator on overall R245fa ORC performances. In addition, in terms of the working fluid’s environmental impact, temperature match of the cycle heat processes and system compactness, CO2 transcritical power cycles (T-CO2) were deemed more applicable for converting low-grade heat to power. However, the system thermal efficiency of T-CO2 requires further improvement. Subsequently, a test rig of a small-scale power generation system with T-CO2 power cycles was developed with essential components connected; these included a plate CO2 supercritical heater, a CO2 transcritical turbine, a plate recuperator, an air-cooled finned-tube CO2 condenser and a CO2 liquid pump. Various preliminary test results from the system measurements are demonstrated in this thesis. At the end, a theoretical study was conducted to investigate and compare the performance of T-CO2 and R245fa ORCs using low-grade thermal energy to produce useful shaft or electrical power. The thermodynamic models of both cycles were developed and applied to calculate and compare the cycle thermal and exergy efficiencies at different operating conditions and control strategies. In this thesis, the main results showed that the thermal efficiency of the tested ORC system could be improved with an increased heat source temperature in the system with or without recuperator. When the heat source temperature increased from 145 oC to 155 oC for the system without recuperator, the percentage increase rates of turbine power output and system thermal efficiency were 13.6% and 14% respectively while when the temperature increased from 154 oC to 166 oC for the system with recuperator, the percentage increase rates were 31.2% and 61.97% respectively. In addition, the ORC with recuperator required a relative higher heat source temperature, which is comparable to a system without recuperator. On the other hand, at constant heat source temperatures, the working fluid pump speed could be optimised to maximise system thermal efficiency for ORC both with and without recuperator. The pressure ratio is a key factor impacting the efficiencies and power generation of the turbine and scroll expander. Maximum electrical power outputs of 1556.24W and 750W of the scroll expander and turbine were observed at pressure ratio points of 3.3 and 2.57 respectively. For the T-CO2 system, the main results showing that the CO2 mass flow rate could be directly controlled by varying the CO2 liquid pump speeds. The CO2 pressures at the turbine inlet and outlet and turbine power generation all increased with higher CO2 mass flow rates. When CO2 mass flow rate increased from 0.2 kg/s to 0.26kg/s, the maximum percentage increase rates of measured turbine power generation was 116.9%. However, the heat source flow rate was found to have almost negligible impact on system performance. When the thermal oil flow rate increased from 0.364kg/s to 0.463kg/s, the maximum percentage increase rate of measured turbine power generation was only 14.8%. For the thermodynamic analysis, with the same operating conditions and heat transfer assumptions, the thermal and exergy efficiencies of R245fa ORCs are both slightly higher than those of T-CO2. However, the efficiencies of both cycles can be enhanced by installing a recuperator at under specific operating conditions. The experiment and simulation results can thus inform further design and operation optimisations of both the systems and their components.

The South African electricity mix is highly dependent on subcritical coal-fired power stations. The average thermal efficiency of these power plants is low. Traditional methods to increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle have been widely studied and implemented. However, utilising the waste heat at the condenser, which accounts for the biggest heat loss in the cycle, presents a large potential to increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Several methods can be implemented for the recovery and utilisation of low-grade waste heat. This theoretical study focuses on replacing the traditional condenser in a fossil fuel power station with a boiling condenser (BC), which operates in a similar manner to the core of a boiling water reactor at a nuclear power plant (Sharifpur, 2007). The system was theoretically tested at the Komati Power Station, South Africa's oldest power station. The power station presented an average low-grade waste heat source. The BC cycle was theoretically tested with several working fluids and numerous different configurations. Several of the theoretical configurations indicated increased thermal efficiency of the cycle. The BC cycle configurations were also tested in two theoretical scenarios. Thirty configurations and 103 working fluids were tested in these configurations. The configuration that indicated the highest increase in thermal efficiency was the BC cycle with regeneration (three regenerative heat exchangers) from the BC turbine. A 2.4% increase in thermal efficiency was obtained for the mentioned theoretical implementation of this configuration. The working fluid tested in this configuration was ethanol. This configuration also indicated a 7.6 MW generating capacity. The increased thermal efficiency of the power station presents benefits not only in increasing the available capacity on South Africa's strained grid, but also environmental benefits. The mentioned reduction of 7.6 MW in heat released into the atmosphere also indicated a direct environmental benefit. The increase in thermal efficiency could also reduce CO2 emissions released annually in tons per MW by 5.74%. The high-level economic analysis conducted, based on the theoretically implemented BC cycle with the highest increase in thermal efficiency, resulted in a possible saving of R46 million per annum. This translated to a saving of R19.2 million per annum for each percentage increase in thermal efficiency brought about by the BC cycle. The theoretical implementation of the BC, with regeneration (three regenerative heat exchangers) from the BC turbine and ethanol as a working fluid, not only indicated an increase in thermal efficiency, but also significant economic and environmental benefits. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering / MEng / Unrestricted

The waste heat recovery technologies have become very relevant since many industrial plants continuously reject large amounts of thermal energy during normal operation which contributes to the increase of the production costs and also impacts the environment. The simulation programs used in industrial engineering enable development and optimization of the operational processes in a cost-effective way. The company Chematur Engineering AB, which supplies chemical plants in many different fields of use on a worldwide basis, was interested in the investigation of the possibilities for effective waste heat recovery from the hydrogenation of dinitrotoluene, which is a sub-process in the toluene diisocyanate manufacture plant. The project objective was to implement waste heat recovery by application of the Organic Rankine Cycle and the Absorption Refrigeration Cycle technologies. Modeling and design of the Organic Rankine Cycle and the Absorption Refrigeration Cycle systems was performed by using Aspen Plus® simulation software where the waste heat carrier was represented by hot water, coming from the internal cooling system in the hydrogenation process. Among the working fluids investigated were ammonia, butane, isobutane, propane, R-123, R-134a, R-227ea, R-245fa, and ammonia-water and LiBr-water working pairs. The simulations have been performed for different plant capacities with different temperatures of the hydrogenation process. The results show that the application of the Organic Rankine Cycle technology is the most feasible solution where the use of ammonia, R-123, R-245fa and butane as the working fluids is beneficial with regards to power production and pay-off time, while R-245fa and butane are the most sustainable choices considering the environment.

[pt] A presente dissertação trata do estudo de sistemas de potência baseados em ciclos Rankine orgânicos (ORC – Organic Rankine Cycle) acionados por energia térmica de rejeito. O objetivo é descrever mediante a simulação numérica um ciclo Rankine orgânico, dimensionar os trocadores de calor para o ciclo proposto e aplicar o conceito para sistemas de trigeração. Um modelo termodinâmico simples é apresentado, relacionando as características termodinâmicas do ciclo Rankine orgânico àquelas da corrente com rejeito térmico (como, por exemplo, vazão mássica, capacidade térmica e temperaturas de operação). A seguir, o método de multi-zonas, ou de fronteira móvel, é aplicado aos trocadores de calor do ciclo, condensador e caldeira, para dimensioná-los às condições do efluente de rejeito térmico. Na escolha do tipo de trocador de calor para a caldeira, é feita a distinção quanto à natureza do efluente, se gasoso ou líquido. No primeiro caso empregam-se trocadores de tubo e aleta e, no segundo, trocadores de placas. A solução numérica do sistema de equações algebraicas e obtida através de um programa computacional escrito em FORTRAN. São também estudados novos fluidos de trabalho de menor impacto ambiental e os resultados apresentados fazem uma comparação com fluidos de uso tradicional. As propriedades termodinâmicas e de transporte dos fluidos considerados foram obtidas usando o programa REFPROP 9.0 do NIST. Finalmente, o conceito do ciclo Rankine orgânico é aplicado a sistemas de trigeração, caracterizados pela produção simultânea de eletricidade, aquecimento e refrigeração. / [en] The present dissertation addresses the study of power generation systems based on organic Rankine cycles (ORC) driven by waste thermal energy (heat). A simple thermodynamic model is presented, relating the thermodynamic characteristics of the organic Rankine cycle to those of the waste heat flow (for instance: mass flow, thermal capacity and operation temperatures). Furthermore, the multi-zone, or movable boundary method is applied to the heat exchangers of the cycle, boiler and condenser, in order to size them for the waste heat flow conditions. In choosing the type of heat exchanger for the boiler, the distinction is made on the nature of the waste heat, either gaseous or liquid. New working fluids for the cycle, of less environmental impact, are studied. For the first case, tube and fin heat exchangers are considered, and in the second, plate heat exchangers. Finally, the concept of the organic Rankine cycle is applied to trigeneration systems, characterized by the simultaneous production of electricity, heating and cooling.