Membrane technologies are considered a promising solution for water scarcity in arid regions. However, fouling is a major challenge facing the application of membrane technologies. Fouling limits the economic viability and reduces the overall efficiency of membrane processes. Therefore, fouling mitigation is a crucial factor in spreading the use of membrane technologies for new applications. The first step in fouling mitigation is to predict the propensity of fouling. Unfortunately, there are immense limitations in current industrial practises for fouling propensity prediction. These limitations come from using outdated and inapplicable approaches, in which crucial assumptions are made. For example, in the case of crystallisation fouling or “scaling” one of the major simplifications is the use of pure scaling salt data to predict the propensity of scaling when, in reality, co-precipitation is present. This research work aims to introduce a new approach to systematic assessment of the fouling problem under real and complex conditions and to enhance understanding of the importance of including interactive effects and co-precipitation in the prediction of scaling propensity. In this research work a novel procedure accounting for the local variation of thermodynamic properties along a long membrane channel is proposed. A new approach considering ion interaction and process hydrodynamics for the prediction of the scaling propensity is then introduced. This new approach provides for the first time a completely theoretical assessment for pure salt scaling propensity along a full scale filtration channel without the use of any empirical constants. A new procedure for including the effect of co-precipitation on scaling propensity prediction is developed. The effect of process pressure on solubility products is included theoretically for the first time to enhance the accuracy of scaling propensity prediction during the full scale RO process. This research work helps to produce more reliable and accurate prediction of the onset of scaling which will help strategies to mitigate scaling and increase the overall efficiency of RO/NF processes. The new approach can be applied in practical situations and could be developed to a user-friendly programme able to give an accurate prediction of the fouling propensity in full scale processes allowing the optimisation of membrane processes accordingly. Moreover, comprehensive experimental work has been carried out during this PhD research work to enhance understanding of crystallisation fouling and coprecipitation. The effect of salinity and dissolved organics (DO) in CaSO4 and SrSO4 precipitation and co-precipitation are studied and discussed. Quantitative and qualitative thermodynamic and kinetic analyses combined with structural analyses of deposits are carried out to investigate the effect of salinity, DO presence and coprecipitation on SrSO4 and CaSO4 precipitation. The observations in this experimental study are very important for a deeper understanding of the effect of scaling salts’ coexistence, salinity and DO presence on the behaviour of the scaling salts. This is crucial to reaching a reliable prediction of the scaling propensity within RO/NF processes. Finally, the new developed approaches in this thesis have been validated using set of hydrodynamic tests. This set of tests has been carried out using a newly installed laboratory membrane rig. Moreover, a new technique to simulate full scale membrane processes is proposed using a laboratory membrane rig combined with the programs previously developed in this thesis. This new technique can be used to study the effect of process hydrodynamics on scaling and process performance of full scale membrane processes using a laboratory membrane rig. The outcomes of this research work can be used to investigate the optimal operating conditions and to guide design criteria for different RO/NF practical scenarios.

No description available.

Many proteins can be described as working machines that make sure that everything functions in the cell. Their specific molecular functions are largely dependent on their three-dimensional structures, which in turn are mainly predetermined by their linear sequences of amino acid residues. Therefore, there is a relation between the sequence, structure and function of a protein, in which knowledge about the structure is crucial for understanding the functions. The structure is generally difficult to determine experimentally, but should in principle be possible to predict from the sequence by computational methods. The instructions of how to build the linear proteins sequences are copied during cell division and are passed on to successive generations. Although the copying process is a very efficient and accurate system, it does not function correctly on every occasion. Sometimes errors, or mutations can result from the process. These mutations gradually accumulate over time, so that the sequences and thereby also the structures and functions of proteins evolve overtime. This thesis is based on four papers concerning the relationship between function, structure and sequence and how it changes during the evolution of proteins. Paper I shows that the structural change is linearly related to sequence change and that structures are 3 to 10 times more conserved than sequences. In Paper II and Paper III we investigated non-helical structures and polar residues, respectively, positioned in the nonpolar membrane core environment of α-helical membrane proteins. Both types were found to be evolutionary conserved and functionally important. Paper IV includes the development of a method to predict the residues in α-helical membrane proteins that after folding become exposed to the solvent environment. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.

Many methods for the quantitative concentration of small amounts of viruses from natural water supplies have been considered. One of the most promising of these is the adsorption of viruses onto a 0.45pm cellulose nitrate membrane filter apparatus. A quantity of water is passed through the filter by gravity or pressure filtration. The viruses present in the water are adsorbed onto the membrane and are subsequently eluted by the use of a beef extract eluant. The virus-containing elution is then layered upon tissue culture, preferably the BGM cell line, for isolation by the plaque method. The isolated virus is then identified by serological techniques.The research presented here utilized the cellulose nitrate membrane filter system for the detection of viruses from local waterways and sewage treatment influents and effluents. Examination of the water was done for the Enterovirus group of viruses consisting primarily of the Echovirus, Coxsackievirus, and Poliovirus groups.Although viral cytopathic effect was detectable in a few cell cultures innoculated with collected water samples, no virus was isolated and identified by serological techniques or electron microscopy. The use of continuous cell lines produced numerous problems during this study. Subsequently, any viruses in positive CPE flasks could not be repassaged in BGM cultures. No viruses could be identified by neutralization in tissue culture. Identification of the positive flasks could not be made by electron microscopy.

Egg phosphatidylcholine was oxidized by atmospheric oxygen under UV light for 16 hours, and the oxidized products formed were fractionated with high-pressure liquid chromatography in reverse phase. Three fractions that appeared at retention times of 19 minutes, 21 minutes and 24 minutes respectively (fraction 19, fraction 21 and fraction 24) were isolated and stabilized by reduction with triphenylphosphine. Zinc diffusion across 1-palmitoyl-2 oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) liposome bilayers mixed with the isolated oxidized fractions was measured. The rate constant for zinc diffusion through the POPC liposome was highest in fraction 19 followed by fraction 21 and fraction 24.NMR data suggests that all oxidized fractions were derived from the major egg polyunsaturated PC, 1-palmitoyl-2-linoleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine. The primary oxidized product, fraction 24 contains a mixture of isomers in which the linoleoyl group has formed the 9-hydroxy-10,12-trans-cis diene and trans-trans diene or the 13-hydroxy12,10-trans-cis diene and trans-trans diene. The primary oxidized products on further oxidation, result in secondary oxidized products, contained in fraction 21 and fraction 19.Experimental data indicates that the major components of fraction 21 are the 9-hydroxy12,13-epoxy-l0-trans-monoene (and 13-hydroxy-9,10-epoxy-11-trans-monoene) and the major components of fraction 19 are the 9,12,13-trihydroxy-l0-trans-monoene (and 9,10,13-trihydroxy-1 l-trans-monoene). / Department of Chemistry

Access to abstract permanently restricted to Ball State community only / Access to thesis permanently restricted to Ball State community only / Department of Physiology and Health Science

Vesicle associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP 2) is a synaptic vesicle protein involved with exocytosis in many different cell types, such as pancreatic cells, parotid salivary cells, adrenal cells, skeletal cells, and adipocytes. Also, white blood cells such as eosinophils, neutrophils, and mast cells have been characterized to process VAMP 2. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that VAMP 2 is associated with the vesicle population in rabbits B lymphocytes and may serve as the v-SNARE for vesicular antibody release. Two Rabbit B lymphoblast cell lines were used to detect the presence of VAMP 2, which are the 240 E IgG secreting plasmacytoma-like cell line and 55D1 IgM surface expressing cells. The cell lines were broken down into vesicle and plasma membrane fractions. Immune dot blots demonstrated VAMP 2 was positive in the vesicle fraction of both cell lines. However, VAMP 2 was expressed more by the 240 E IgG secreting cell line. Western blots displayed diverse results with bands that ran at or below 20 KDa, which is consistent with the known molecular weight bands for VAMP 2 of 12.6 kDa and 18 kDa. Our results suggested that VAMP 2 is associated with the vesicle population in rabbit B lymphocytes and could serve as the v- SNARE for vesicular antibody release. / Access to thesis permanently restricted to Ball State community. / Department of Physiology and Health Science

VAMP-7 has been found to interact with SNAP-23, a t-SNARE that functions in relocating granule membranes in response to stimulation, and plays a large role in the regulation of granule release from mast cells in response to an allergic reaction. While evidence suggests that VAMP-7 is active in antibody release in the innate immune system, little investigation has been completed on VAMP-7 interaction in specific antibody release of B lymphocytes of the humoral immune system. Little research has previously focused on vesicular transport within B lymphocytes, leaving molecular mechanisms within B lymphocytes a mystery. Immunodot blots, western blots, and immunoflourescent microscopy were all utilized with the goal of identifying the presence of VAMP- 7. Immunobot blots for both 55D1 and 240E cells were all negative for the presence of VAMP-7. However, VAMP-7 was detected using immunoflourescent microscopy in both 55D1 and 240E cell lines. / Access to thesis permanently restricted to Ball State community. / Department of Physiology and Health Science

The basic unit of life is the cell, from single-cell bacteria to the largest creatures on the planet. All cells have DNA, which contains the blueprint for proteins. This information is transported in the form of messenger RNA from the genome to ribosomes where proteins are produced. Proteins are the main functional constituents of the cell, they usually have one or several functions and are the main actors in almost all essential biological processes. Proteins are what make the cell alive. Proteins are found as solitary units or as part of large complexes. Proteins can be found in all parts of the cell, the most common place being the cytoplasm, a central space in all cells. They are also commonly found integrated into or attached to various membranes. Membranes define the cell architecture. Proteins integrated into the membrane have a wide number of responsibilities: they are the gatekeepers of the cell, they secrete cellular waste products, and many of them are receptors and enzymes. The main focus of this thesis is the study of protein interactions, from the molecular level up to the protein domain level. In paper I use reoccurring local protein structures to try and predict what sections of a protein interacts with another part using only sequence information. In papers II and III we use a randomization approach on a membrane protein motif that we know interacts with a sphingomyelin lipid to find other candidate proteins that interact with sphingolipids. These are then experimentally verified as sphingolipid-binding. In the last paper, paper IV, we look at how protein domain interaction networks overlap and can be evaluated. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript.</p>

The rate of anaerobic digestion (AD) often depends on the rate-limiting hydrolysis step that makes organics available to microorganisms. To achieve efficient conversion of particulates to soluble materials and finally methane, the biomass in the digester must be provided with optimal operational conditions that will allow for biomass retention and substrate metabolism. Two approaches were employed in this study to improve the ultimate biodegradability of waste activated sludge (WAS) - Pre-treatment (PT) and operation using an Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor (AnMBR). PT of WAS is one way of speeding up hydrolysis. It has been proposed that PT leads to the lysis of cells, which in turn causes the release and solubilisation, and thus availability of intracellular matter to microorganisms for microbial growth and metabolic activities. This study compared the effect of thermal, sonication, and sonication + hydrogen peroxide PT on chemical oxygen demand (COD) solubilisation of WAS. Based on the soluble COD (SCOD) release, it was concluded that combined chemi-sonic treatment resulted in better WAS degradation rather than individual ultrasonic pre-treatment and thermal PT. The highest solubilisation rate was observed at a chemi-sonic PT of 50gH2O2/kgTS and sonication duration of 60 minutes. At this PT, a COD solubilisation of 40% was observed which was significantly different than PT involving only sonication and no pre-treatment (0.88%) at 95% confidence. Therefore a peroxide-sonic PT was chosen to treat WAS in this study as it was expected to result in the greatest improvement in WAS biodegradability. In addition to PT, biodegradability of WAS can also be improved by coupling PT with an AnMBR. AnMBRs prevent biomass washout by decoupling the solids retention time (SRT) from the hydraulic retention time (HRT). Thus, a long SRT can be used to provide sufficient duration for biological activities without increasing the volume of the reactor. In this study, a 4.5L AnMBR with an HRT and SRT of 3 and 20 days, respectively was used to treat raw and PT WAS. In order to compare the biodegradability of PT and raw WAS, the AnMBR was operated in three phases. Phase 1 was operated with raw WAS, Phase 2 was operated with WAS pre-treated with 50 gH2O2/kgTS and 20 minutes ultrasound (US), and Phase 3 was operated with WAS pre-treated with 50 gH2O2/kgTS and 60 minutes US. The anaerobic biodegradability of WAS following a combination of ultrasonic pre-treatment and H2O2 addition was significantly improved, with Phase 3 resulting in the greatest improvement. The COD destruction for phases 1, 2, and 3 were 49%, 58%, and 63%, respectively whereas the volatile suspended solids (VSS) destruction for phases 1, 2, and 3 were 46%, 71%, and 77% respectively. Organic Nitrogen (Org-N) destruction increased from 44% to 52% for phases 1 and 2 respectively. A further increase of 18% in Org-N destruction was observed in phase 3. This improvement in biodegradability of WAS was attributed to the high solubilisations of COD, VSS, and ON and conversion of non-biodegradable materials to biodegradable fractions. In order to determine the effect of PT of WAS on membrane performance, the transmembrane pressure (TMP) and fouling rate were monitored throughout the operation of the AnMBR. Negligible variation in membrane performance was observed over all three phases. At a constant low flux of 2.75 litres/m2/hour (LMH), the TMP and the fouling rate remained low over the course of operation. In order to maintain the performance of the membrane, maintenance cleaning with 50 ml of 2g/L critic acid solution followed by 50 ml of 0.2 g/L sodium hypochlorite was performed three times a week. In addition, a gas sparing rate of 2 L/minute and a permeation cycle of 10 minutes with 8 minutes of operation followed by 2 minutes of relaxation was employed. During phase 2 of this study, a new membrane was installed due to a faulty gas sparging pump. A slight decrease of TMP was observed with the installation of the new membrane; however the decrease was minimal. In addition critical flux for phases 2 and 3 were determined to be in the range of 6 to 12 LMH. In conclusion, the incorporation of H2O2-US PT with AD could allow treatment plants to substantially reduce the mass flow of solids and organics and thus result in a decrease in requirements for downstream sludge processing. With sufficient maintenance, steady operation could be achieved for a hollow fibre AnMBR with a total solids concentration range of 20-25 g/L, an HRT of 3 days, and an SRT of 20 days. It was found that PT could be successfully integrated with AnMBR to substantially reduce the HRT required for digestion when compared to conventional designs.