The purpose of this study was to analyze the interactions of visitors and Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at the Mt. Longevity. Data on the attitudes of visitors were collected by using questionnaires covering topics such as purpose, frequency and opinions of visitors. Scan samplings, agonistic behavior samplings and focal samplings were used as observational methods to record the agonistic behaviors of monkeys. The study also analyzed patterns of human-monkey interactions that recorded through ad libitum samplings, including visitor participation that influenced agonistic behaviors among the monkeys. Statistical analyses were used to analyze various factors that influenced agonistic frequency and patterns. The agonistic behaviors in dyads during food provision tests were used to establish their rank relationships and dominance styles. Mt Longevity is a major recreational site in Kaohsiung city; the human pressure on Mt. Longevity was high and the tourist numbers were estimated as 6175 individuals ( ¡Ó 119, n = 10) in holidays and 3490 individuals ( ¡Ó 68, n = 10) in weekdays (between 08:00 to 18:00 hrs). The vegetation cover was apparently reduced above 60% in 16 recreational sites surveyed. The tourist numbers appeared to exceeding the carrying capacity of Mt. Longevity. The frequencies of human-monkey interaction were influenced by the number of monkeys and concentrated during the afternoons; the average frequency was 9.3 times / hr in holiday and 3.3 times / hr in weekday. The average frequency of tourists provisioned for monkeys was 0.59 times / hr ( ¡Ó 17.2, n = 131). An overall ratio of 17.5 : 1 between human-initiated and monkey-initiated interaction behaviors was found. Pass and eye contact accounted for over 67% of these interactions, and adult monkeys participated in human-monkey interaction more than the rest of the age / sex classes. During the conflict between human and macaques, most visitors used sticks or hands / legs to drive adult males away (63.5%). The average daily activities of Formosan macaques were: 37.7% inactive, 24.6% moving, 24.5% affiliation, eating / foraging 9.5% and agonistic behavior 2.6%. Frequencies of monkey aggressive behaviors increased along with increasing individuals of monkeys, and frequencies of their body aggressions and aggressions were higher during provision than without human disturbance. Open mouth threat was the most frequent aggressive behavior expressed by the monkeys (60.0%), while fleeing (37.0%) and squealing (36.0%) were the most common submissive behaviors. Agonistic initiators were mostly adult females (41.9%) and males (40.4%) and agonistic reactors were mostly juveniles (44.6%) and adult females (32.6%). Monkey contest was only 2.8% - 3.9% of total aggressive behaviors and the study revealed that the dominance style of Formosan macaques was despotic social system. The frequency of aggressive behavior of adult males (1.3 ¡Ó 2.1 times / 20min, n = 14) was 2.6 times in average to that of adult females (0.5 ¡Ó 0.9 times / 20min, n = 17). It varied significantly among different adult males and it was higher in mating seasons than the non-mating seasons (p<0.05). However, the frequencies of aggressive behavior of adult females were similar between seasons and among ranks (low, middle and high) but the frequency of submissive behaviors was higher in low rank adult females than that of high rank ones (p<0.05). Adult male and female Formosan macaques had a similar dominance style (aggression, avoidance, ignoring, undecided, AAD pattern and NNI pattern) in food tests; adult males showed more frequent aggression toward adult males than to adult females and juveniles. The individuals who showed open mouth threat had a success rate of getting food for over 50%.

Abstract This study analyzed the contexts of three types of agonistic calls (Growl, Threat rattle, Vibrato growl) in Formosan macaques and their responses to predators and alarm calls at Mt. Longevity. Under natural condition, 112 five-minute scan samplings and 100 twenty-minute behavior samplings were collected to record agonistic behaviors and agonistic calls of macaques. In addition, 11 dog-presence tests and 102 playback experiments were successfully conducted from January 2003 to April 2004. Of 385 agonistic events, 61.8% comprise of vocal bouts contained units belonging to single type of agonistic calls, and 31.8% bouts were mixed units contained more than one type of agonistic calls. Among these three single types of agonistic calls, Vibrato growl was used most frequently during conspecific interactions (44.3%); Threat rattle was used toward human (51.7%) and dogs (94.4%). During intraspecies conflicts of macaques, the vocal rates of three single type agonistic calls decreased from adult males, adult females and juveniles to infants. The average units per bout of Growl was higher than that of Threat rattle and Vibrato growl (p<0.0002). However, the agonistic interactions explain the different functions of the three types of agonistic calls. Growl was frequently accomplished with chase of callers (45.6%), while flee was usually expressed by receivers (57.9%). When monkeys uttered Threat rattle or Vibrato growl, open mouth threat was the most frequent behavior expressed by callers (80.5% and 73.1%), while evade was most frequent behavior expressed by receivers (43.9% and 31.9%). Growl conveyed messages about intense callers and contexts, and receivers avoided damage through fleeing. These results support Smith (1981) hypothesis referential signal carry information about external objects, contexts or a caller internal state as reflected in the probability of its subsequent behavior pattern. Receivers are able to attribute a certain meaning and express appropriate responses by the combination of signal structure and the context in which they are exposed the call. Six different acoustic features of alarm calls existed between adult males and juvenile males. Alarm calls from Juveniles have higher Maximal, Median and Modulation Fundamental Frequencies than from adult males (p<0.0001). But alarm calls from juveniles have lower Highest Frequency, Total Range of Frequency and Duration of each Unit than from adult males (p<0.005). The results support current theory that the duration and fundamental frequency reflect body size. In the playback experiments, macaques responded stronger to alarm calls from adult males than from juvenile males (p<0.0001). The average response score of macaques toward alarm calls from playback experiments was highest from infants, followed by juveniles, adult females and adult males. Adult macaques often responded to playbacks by looking in the direction of the loudspeaker. Juveniles and infants most often responded to playback calls by escape and startle. In playback experiments of alarm calls from adult males, F troop had significant different responses in three different places, strongest in the unfamiliar place (p<0.0001). The presents of dog elicited macaques with stronger responses than playback of dog barks (p<0.0001).

Abstract This study investigated the reproductive behaviors of Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) from July 2000 to July 2002 with 608 field hours in Mt. Lonvegity. I followed troops C and Cd that resulted from a fission of troop C in Dec. 2000. During these two mating seasons, 19 sexually mature males and 19 females were involved in 188 mounting/thrusting series. These included 139 single and 49 multi-mounting thrusting series. The peak frequency of copulation was in Dec. in both years with means of 1.34/hr and 0.94/hr. However, the maximum number of males and females involved were in Nov and Nov~Dec.. with 18 (9M9F, 2001) and 22 (12M10F, 2001) individuals. The residency and ranks of males influence their copulation strategies. Alpha males performed over half of the multi-mount copulations (55.1%), followed by non-troop males and other troop males (each, 22.45¢M). On the other hand, the highest proportion of single mount copulations were from OTM (38.13%)¡CBiting and copulation calls occurred more frequently in multi-mount than in single mount copulation. The duration of thrust was longest in the last mount of multi-mount copulation series (10.9 sec ¡Ó5.4, n=45), next in single mount (8.16 sec ¡Ó4.2). Male dominant rank influenced the occurrence of consortships between heterosexual pairs. Nearly all of consortships observed were performed by troop males (94/105 = 89.4%), NTM just 10.48¢M(11/105 = 10.48%)¡CHigh-ranking males guarded estrous females and interfered low-ranking males' copulation. The later used sneaky mating during the absence of dominant males or in the peripheral part of a social troop with poor visibility.¡C Troop C was dominant to troop Cd in habitat utilization and intertroop interaction. Troop C often chased troop Cd away (78.3%) or troop C withdrew voluntarily (21.7%). After the troop fission, the peak of monthly frequency of copulation in Cd was higher than that in troop C (two mating seasons: 3.33/hr versus 1.44/hr, 2.80/hr versus 0.74/hr). The birth rates of these two troops both increased from 2001 to 2002 (C: 37.5% to 81.3%; Cd: 50.0% to 100%)¡C

This study investigated the reproduction and survival of Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis). Data on birth and death of Formosan macaques at Mt. Longevity were collected from 1996 till 2006. The birth of Formosan macaques peaked from April to June (94.4%). The sex ratio of 604 infants at birth was 1:1.2 (female to male), which was not significantly different from 1:1. The death of less than one-month-old infants accounted for 22.2% of all infant death. Infant mortality (less than 1 years old) was very high (35.2%) and no sexual difference was found (p > 0.05). Mortality of males equal or older than 6 years old (16.8-33.3%) were higher than those of females (p < 0.05). In primiparous females, most females (57.6%) gave birth at four years old. The average interbirth intervals of females after infant death within the first 3 months was 0.96 years (¡Ó 0.07, n = 23) which was significantly shorter than that after the successful rearing infants (1.02 years ¡Ó 0.09, n = 185, p < 0.05). Maternal ranks, age, infant sex ratio and troop size had no significant effect on the interbirth intervals (p > 0.05). The average interbirth intervals of high-ranking females (1.03 years) were similar to those from middle- (1.10 years) and low-ranking females (1.01 years). The average interbirth intervals after daughters were slightly longer than those after sons (1.02 and 1.01 years, prospectively). Interbirth intervals among small-sized troops (0.97 years) was slightly shorter than those from large- (1.02 years) and middle-sized troops (1.00 years). The birth rates of high- and middle-ranking females (66.3% and 68.0%, prospectively) were significantly higher than that of low-ranking females (45.6%, p < 0.05). Maternal rank and age had no significant effect on male infant ratio (p > 0.05). However, male infant ratio of high-ranking and young-aged females (76.2%) was 1.3-1.6 times of high-ranking, middle- and old-aged females, 1.5-1.7 times of middle-, low-ranking and young-aged females. Male infant ratio of middle troop size and high-ranking females (66.7%) was 1.2-1.4 times of large- and small-sized troops; 1.4-1.5 times of middle troop size and middle- and low-ranking females.

Soil in the Mt. Longevity, Taiwan, eaten by Formosan macaques, was analyzed to determine the possible stimulus or stimuli for geophagy. I attempted to test the mineral supplementation hypothesis and to document macaques using particle size. I studied macaques soil-eating behavior from July 2000 to April 2002 in the Mt. Longevity, Taiwan, and analyzed soil samples eaten and uneaten by Formosan macaque for physical-chemical properties and geochemistry in the study area. The results show that samples of soil eaten contained relatively high iron ( 3.6% ) and aluminum ( 16.0% ). However, the concentration of samarium was significantly lower in soil from samples eaten than in the random samples. No difference in concentration of the remaining fifteen elements ( magnesium¡Bcalcium¡B chromium¡Bmanganese¡Bcopper¡Barsenic¡Bstrontium¡Bbarium¡Blanthanum¡Bcerium¡Bneodymium¡Bytterbium¡Bphosphorous¡Bsulfate¡Bchlorides ) and Nitrate nitrogen was found between these two groups of soil samples. Geophagy occurred at a high rate of 0.31 monkey per hour with an elevated frequency in the reproduction season. The density of geophagy has been estimated as 1.6¡Ñ103 individuals per km2 . Frequency of male geophagy were recorded highest in September. Frequency of Females eating soil was recorded mainly between February and April. The ingested soils were significantly richer in clay than control soils. This study supports the hypothesis that mineral supplementation is a major factor for Formosan macaque engaging in geophagy.

Adult female Formosan macaques were observed to collect data on the acquisition and stabilization of ranking, troop fission and to compare the female ranking system and nepotistic hierarchy. Behavioral observations were recorded from 1 October 2006 to 30 April 2008. Behavioral sampling methods included scan sampling of macaque troop members, all occurrences sampling of adult females¡¦ affiliative behaviors, and focal animal sampling of aggressive behaviors. In addition, demographic and ranking records were collected from 1998 until 2008. When females attained four years of age, they gained adult female hierarchy, and 88 % (n = 43) of them were middle or low ranking. Individual traits, ageing and mother¡¦s relative rank have significant effects on the ranking of adult females who were 5 to 11 years of age (P < 0.05), and the ranking of 47 % (n = 58) mothers were close to their daughters. When females were 5 to 11 years of age, their relative ranks had positive linear relationships to their mother¡¦s relative rank (P < 0.05). Maternal hierarchy affected the ranking of reminders in troop C, and the dominance matrilineal females stabilized high ranking. But, most subordinate matrilineal females were middle or low ranking. The ranking of 86.4 % (n = 22) of females who immigrated to branch troops was middle or low. Matrilineal members and the ranking before troop fission had effects on the female ranking after troop fission. The ranking of 59.4 % (n = 32) of mothers was higher than that of their daughter. When females reached 9 years old or older while their mothers were alive, mean relative rank of other matrilineal female and mother¡¦s relative rank had significant effects on their ranking (P < 0.05). However, individual traits, mean relative rank of other matrilineal female, ageing, and the number of adult daughters have significant iv effects on female ranking (P < 0.05). When females were 9 to 15 years of age, the rank maintaining ratio of female with mature daughter was 0.82 (¡Ó 0.12), which is significant higher than the ratio of female without mature daughter (P < 0.05). About 50 % (n = 18) of younger sisters outranked their older sisters. The ranking relationships of sister dyads had positive linear relationships (P < 0.05). The proximity index of mother and younger sister was significantly higher than the proximity index of mother and older sister (P < 0.05), but that is independent of whether females outrank their sister or not. Only 4 % (n = 423) female aggression data were recorded that 13 supporters helped attackers to attack victims. The kin and non-kin supporter were 46.1 % and 53.9 % respectively (n = 13). Maternal hierarchy affected the adult female ranking and half of the females outranked their older sisters. However, daughters could also outrank mothers. Therefore, female ranking system of Formosan macaques follows a weakly nepotistic hierarchy. Sterck EHM, Watts DP, vanSchaik CP (1997) The evolution of female social relationships in nonhuman primates. Behav Ecol Sociobio 41:291-309 Su HH (2003) Acquirement of social ranks of females in one group of Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Fushan Experimental Forest, Taiwan. Am J Phys Anthropol:203-203 Su HH, Birky WA (2007) Within-group female-female agonistic interactions in Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopis). Am J Primatol 69:199-211 Su HH, Lee LL (2001) Food habits of Formosan rock macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Jentse, northeastern Taiwan, assessed by fecal analysis and behavioral observation. Int J Primatol 22:359-377 Suzuki S, Hill DA, Sprague DS (1998) Intertroop transfer and dominance rank structure of nonnatal male Japanese macaques in Yakushima, Japan. Int J Primatol 19:703-722 Thierry B (1990) Feedback loop between kinship and dominance: the macaque model. J Theor Biol 145:511-521 Wu HY, Lin JF (1992) Life history variables of wild troop of Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Kenting, Taiwan. Primates 33:85-97

I have investigated the social grooming in kinship, rank, age and seasonal change among adult female Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) that inhabit Mt. Longevity, Kaohsiung. The major study groups were C and Cd groups. Field observations were conducted from August 2000 to February 2003 covering three mating seasons and two non-mating seasons. The observations covered a total of 188 work days including 1248.8 hours. I actually had recorded C group for 660.6 hours, and Cd group for 244.5 hours. During my study, C group consisted of 8-13 adult males and 14-15 adult females, while group Cd had 1-3 adult males and 2-4 adult females. In order to analyze grooming data, I divided 15 adult females into sub-groups such as dominant/ submissive groups, old (>13) /young age (5-12), relative higher/lower ranking and related/unrelated. I have also divided adult males into troop-males and periphery males. Adult female allo-grooming activities accounted for 37.62% ¡Ó 13.59 (n = 15) of the behaviors in the daytime. I also found that adult females grooming infants and juveniles were greater than received from them (p < 0.001). The social grooming among adult females occurred mainly during non-mating seasons and its frequency was 2.12 times of mating seasons. Regardless of mating or non-mating seasons, the frequency of grooming among related females was significantly higher than among unrelated females (both p < 0.001). In addition, kinship affected the grooming frequency among female macaques with relative lower or higher ranking females during mating seasons (p < 0.05), while the dominant rank did not have the effect. However, the highest grooming frequency occurred in the high-ranking females who groomed relative lower ranking females within relatives (0.38 ¡Ó 0.40 bouts / 100 scans, n = 7). During non-mating seasons, kinship affected the grooming frequency among female macaques with relative lower ranking females (p < 0.05); the highest grooming frequency occurred in the old females who groomed relative lower ranking females within relatives (1.57 ¡Ó 1.74 bouts / 100 scans, n = 8). Moreover, seasons (mating or non-mating) and kinship relationship had significant effects on grooming frequencies among female macaques (both giving and receiving p < 0.01), as well as on the grooming frequency of females groomed with relative lower ranking females (p < 0.01). The highest grooming frequency occurred on females groomed with relative lower ranking females within relatives during non-mating seasons (1.25 ¡Ó 1.48 bouts / 100 scans, n = 11). Without kinship relationship, low-ranking females groomed relative higher ranking females more frequent than high-ranking females did (p < 0.05). Within adult females, 65% of social grooming was among relatives. However, 40% of adult females groomed equally with related and unrelated females, while 20% disproportionately groomed more with unrelated females than with related females. The grooming was kin-biased for 40%. About 8.68% of social grooming among unrelated females was being reciprocated. On the other hand, the ratio of related grooming female partners to the total number of available related females was higher than that with unrelated females (p < 0.05). It also indicated that the ratio of each female received grooming from high-ranking grooming partners was higher than that from low-ranking females (p < 0.01).On the other hand, the ratio of the number of old or young grooming partners of adult females had similar values. The grooming frequency of adult females gave or received from adult males during mating seasons was higher than non-mating seasons (both p < 0.05) while high-rank females groomed adult males more than low-rank females did. The socionomic sex ratios of these two social groups were similar during mating seasons (AM:AF = 1:1.8). Both troop and periphery males had significantly higher frequency of social grooming with adult females in mating seasons than in non-mating seasons. The types of males and social groups had significant effects on the allogrooming frequency among adult males in mating seasons (p < 0.05) but not in non-mating seasons (p > 0.1). Moreover, troop males had higher grooming partners than periphery males. Major grooming partners of troop males were adult females regardless of the seasons. Subordinate males were mostly the receivers in the grooming dyads with dominant males in the mating seasons, but the relationships changed during non-mating seasons. Agonistic interactions occurred mainly during mating seasons and its frequency among periphery males was 1.8 times of troop males (p < 0.05). The preference grooming sites between allo-grooming and auto-grooming of C and Cd groups had varied significantly (p < 0.001). The back region was the preferred grooming site in allo-grooming of C and Cd group and the ano-genital region was the least groomed site. In auto-grooming, monkeys paid much attention to the legs ignoring the back and face. The result indicated that when the adult individuals groomed the head, back and face which showed significant difference in the frequency among AM and AF (p < 0.05). The related female adults groomed head more frequently than unrelated female adults (p < 0.05), but dominance rank and age-class did not apparently affect the corresponding values for the frequency of grooming sites among adult females (both p > 0.1). The results indicated that social grooming among adult females took place more often during non-mating seasons, and more often in kin-related females than unrelated females. Moreover, the dominant females were likely to groom related females. Therefore social grooming among kin-related females may reinforce relationships while reciprocal grooming of unrelated females may serve to form alliance or ranking promotion in the social group. On the other hand, social grooming between adult male and female macaques more frequent in mating seasons than in non-mating seasons. This showed that adult male Formosan macaques employed complex strategies to achieve reproductive success. Nonetheless, the periphery males had more male grooming partners than troop males did which seemingly to enhance male coalitions.

Formosan macaques were observed to collect data on intergroup encounters, the strategies of male and female and the factors which influence inter-group dominance relationships. Four hypotheses exist to explain the strategies of male and female in inter-group encounter, including female resource defense, male mate defense, male resource defense and male mate attraction via infanticide. Behavioral observations were recorded from March 2008 to March 2009. Data collections included scan sampling and focal sampling of troop members which participated in encounter, containing their sex, age, rank and behavior. Duration of inter-group interaction and distances between two troops were also recorded. There is a significant positive relationship between chance of winning and troop number (AM+AF+SAM), and this chance of winning is higher than 50% when troop size exceeded 30. There is also a significant linear regression between weight win¡]main group and branch group¡^and troop number , but chance of weight win in some troops is higher than 90% when troop size is only between 20 to 30. Approach, line-up, displace and be-displaced have significant correlation with troop size type. Large troops displayed higher displace (65%), line-up (6%) and approach (28%) than other type of troops, and small troop were easily displaced by other type of troops (60%). Aggressive behavior also has significant correlation with mating season significantly; troops of Formosan macaques display more aggressive behavior in mating season (70%) than in non-mating season (41%). Troops of Formosan macaques display higher approach¡]33%¡^ and displace (93%) when troops encounter with all male troop than with bisexual troop. Inter-group dominance relationships exist among main group and branch group which newly split of Formosan macaques. But there is uncertain inter-group dominance relationships between main group and branch group which split early for the difference of maternal dominance hierarchies, variation of troop numbers, and the character of central males. Adult male and female Formosan macaques adopt different strategy in inter-group encounter. Adult female Formosan macaques participated (8.62%, n=8) and displayed aggressive behavior (3.66%, n=8) in more food-related encounter than in non-food-related encounter, so female resource defense hypothesis is supported. Adult male Formosan macaques display higher aggressive behavior (7.92%, n=23) significantly than adult female and sub-adult male in inter-group encounter, and the target of aggression is higher for males than for females. Adult and sub-adult male Formosan macaques display higher aggressive behavior in mating season significantly than in non-mating season. So male mate defense hypothesis is also supported. This study provides support for the male resource defense hypothesis. Adult male Formosan macaques would defend food resource directly and indirectly. Besides, frequencies of participation and aggression in low ranking adult male Formosan macaques are higher than high ranking ones to exchange mating opportunity.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the post-conflict reconciliation, consolation, solicited affiliation, stress and redirection in the captive Formosan macaques¡]Macaca cyclopis¡^in the Taipei Zoo. I used the post-conflict and matched-control (PC-MC) method to calculate the conciliatory tendency (CCT) and the triadic contact tendency (TCT) in adult macaques. The mean CCT for kin (83.33%) was significantly higher than that for non-kin (0.36%), and victims initiated reconciliation toward aggressors in higher rank classes significant more than both of them were in the same rank. The mean TCTs of aggressors and the victims were similar toward different triadic contact opponents (opponent¡¦s kin, own kin, unrelated individual). The ratio of the attracted pairs of victims who reconciled with aggressors by sociosexual behavior (15.23%) was significant higher than dispersed pairs (non-exist). In addition, the ratio of attracted pairs of victims who reconciled with unrelated third party by affiliation (46.72%) was significant higher than the dispersed pairs (21.76%). The similar situation also occurred in sociosexual behavior (28.68% verse 1.75%). However, aggressors and victims had similar chance to take the initiative affiliation after conflict (P > 0.05) The frequency of self-directed behavior (SDB) of Formosan macaques was slightly higher in the first 4 minutes in PC. The frequency of SDB after reconciliation (14.6 bouts/100 min) was not significantly lower than that before reconciliation (23.2 bouts/100 min) or when affiliation behavior did not occur (22.3 bouts/100 min). When the conflict opponents were kin, the SDB frequency (16.1 bouts/100 min) was not significantly lower than non-kin (24.1 bouts/100 min). The targets of redirect aggression were mostly unrelated individuals (82.61%). The mean CCT of the victims (16.50%) did not significant differ from the mean consolation TCT of the victims (48.81%), which indicated that reconciliation and consolation played similar critical roles after conflict. The sociosexual behavior performed by victims only occurred in PC (34.85%), which indicated the purpose of sociosexual behavior in reconciliation was to prevent further attack from aggressors. The chance of victims did not involve reconciliation and consolation, but solicited affiliation with a third party in PC was 23.32%. This indicated that the solicited affiliation might function to exchange the aggressive supports from the third party in the following conflicts.

The purpose of this study was to analyze and compare the agonistic behaviors and reconciliation in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis). The dominance style of Formosan macaques was compared with long-tailed, rhesus and Japanese macaques. I have used scan, focal sampling and ad libitum on aggressions of adult macaques. I have recorded post-conflict (PC) focal samplings on victims and compared those with matched control (MC) focal samplings. Agonistic behaviors had significantly higher frequency in captive than in free-ranging Formosan macaques. The frequencies of hostile and submission were significantly higher in captive than in free-ranging Formosan macaques. The captive adult females of higher rank had higher frequency of threat and hostile, and lower frequency of submission. Threat was the most frequent aggression (52-72%) expressed by both the captive and free-ranging adult monkeys. The victims in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques usually submitted immediately after aggression (82-89%). The proportion of counter aggression in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques were relative low (9-16%). The aqerage conciliatory tendency for adult Formosan macaques was 14.3% to 19.6%. The affiliative contacts in PC and MC in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques were striking that both preferred grooming. The Formosan macaques significantly reconciled more during PC than MC period both in captive and free-ranging conditions. In addition, both had significantly more attracted than dispersed PC-MC pairs. The conciliatory tendencies in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques were similar regardless of kin and non-kin partners. This study indicated that Formosan macaques were close to the macaques of Fascicularis group. Therefore, Formosan macaques had a despotic dominance style as suggested by Phylogenetic hypotheses.