This study was concerned with the level of acceptability and perceptions of three types of commercially produced roller-milled white maize meal namely: sifted unfortified, sifted fortified and super fortified versus hammer-mill produced white and yellow maize meal (with and without fibre) among Shangaan consumers in Giyani in the Limpopo Province, South Africa (SA). The local households produce maize grain on a small scale or buy it from small scale farmers and take it to the local small scale millers for milling for a fee. The 48 participants for this project were female consumers (eighteen years old or older). The study was divided into two phases. The aim of the first phase was to determine the difference if any in acceptability of the sensory attributes of the various maize meal types. It employed a sensory evaluation technique which is a quantitative scientific method in which numerical data was collected and analysed in order to determine and compare consumer acceptability. The aim of the second phase was to discuss the perceptions of these consumers in relation to the products and employed focus-group interviews. During phase one maize meal porridge was prepared by local community volunteers under careful supervision in a standardized manner. The porridge was served warm: two samples at a time, marked with 3-digit random codes. None of the participants had any prior information pertaining to the samples they were tasting at any time. The identity of the samples were only revealed during the focus-group interviews (phase two). Consumers preferred (liked) white sifted fortified maize meal porridge on a double blind basis more than the white sifted unfortified maize meal porridge. Hammer-mill white and hammer-mill yellow maize porridge with fibre were equally disliked by participants. There was no significant difference in the acceptability of hammer-mill white compared to yellow maize meal without fibre. No significant difference was found in preference for aroma, colour, consistency and taste between white sifted unfortified and super fortified maize meal compared to white hammer-mill maize meal without fibre. The difference in taste preference can only be attributed to the fortificant that is added commercially to the maize meal. This is quite a significant finding and different to that measured prior to the implementation of the SA National Fortification Scheme, where no impact on taste was measured. Furthermore, consumers’ preference for fortified maize meal on a double blind bias is in contrast to previous findings of research indicating a degree of dislike among consumers regarding fortified maize meal, according to maize millers’ opinion. During phase two focus-group interviews were conducted immediately following phase one. The participants sat in a cluster for these interviews. The qualitative data was transcribed verbatim into text for analysis and discussion of results. At least 40 out of 48 consumers stated that they liked the hammer-mill yellow maize meal porridge in terms of aroma, colour, texture, taste and for its nutritional value. Those in Homu 14 village stated that if the price of roller-mill maize meal was similar to that of yellow maize meal they would buy both maize types as they liked them equally but those in Mahlathi would buy yellow maize meal for nutritional reasons. / Dissertation (MConsSci (General))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Consumer Science / unrestricted

In 2003 the Department of Health of South Africa embarked on a mandatory fortification programme of maize meal as part of the Integrated Nutrition Program (INP) to alleviate malnutrition. The aim of this study was two-fold: firstly, to determine the vitamin A content of South African fortified white maize meal as purchased and the maize porridge as traditionally prepared from it as consumed and secondly, to determine the relative efficacy of the daily consumption of maize meal in sustaining or improving vitamin A status. Maize meal samples for analysis were purchased from various supermarkets and small retail outlets. A High Performance Liquid Chromatograph-Diode Array Detector system with a Reverse Phase C-18 column and isocratic elution was used for separation and quantification of vitamin A. The highest mean vitamin A concentration measured in the maize meal was 261 μgRE/100g and the lowest mean vitamin A concentration was <19 μgRE/100g. Pertaining to the regulations the final minimum level of vitamin A in fortified maize meal must not be less than 187.7 μgRE/100g. The average retention of vitamin A in maize porridge as the difference in vitamin A concentration measured between raw maize meal and cooked porridge was calculated at 39.8%. One of the considerations in a fortification program is the availability of certain micronutrients in the fortified foods, with the focus in this project on vitamin A. An animal model, namely chickens, closely relating the metabolism of vitamin A in humans was used. Chickens are very susceptible to vitamin A deficiencies with similar symptoms. Growth and vitamin A status was evaluated by the weight, feed conversion and liver retinol stores of chickens on five different maize based diets over a six week period. No significant difference in vitamin A levels in the livers of birds on diets with fortified white maize meal, compared to the normal poultry diet consisting of yellow maize meal with added vitamin A was found. It can thus be concluded that the fortificant in the white maize meal is as bioavailable as the vitamin A in the premix used in poultry nutrition. The results of this study show that the vitamin A added as fortificant is absorbed and available to the body. Therefore, fortification of commonly eaten staple foods in the country can significantly improve the vitamin A intake of the population and will improve the overall micronutrient density of their diets. Fortification should be set at levels to include losses incurred through packaging and during transportation, shelf losses and preparation losses. It is also important that the vitamin A content of the product as purchased and consumed must be regularly monitored and regulated by government. Valid and reliable evaluation data are needed to evaluate a program’s success, and to make timeous adjustments for optimal efficiency. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted

Thesis (M. Tech. (Food and Beverage management, Dept. of Hospitality, Tourism and Project Management) -- Vaal University of Technology / Background: About 66 percent of South Africans are urbanised. The majority of this population is forced by circumstances to live in informal settlements. Despite the income challenges faced, the market expenditure by these low-income consumers amounts to R129 billion per year. A lack of information exists regarding food product attributes that guide purchasing choice for maize meal. Objective of the study: To identify and describe the food product attributes experienced as most important during purchasing of maize meal by low-income consumers in informal settlements in the Johannesburg-Vaal region. Methods: Phase 1 comprised a quantitative survey in three informal! and one formal settlement (n=502), testing the level of importance perceived for 14 food product attributes. In Phase 2, focus group discussions were conducted to describe and compare the understanding of the food product attributes between groups and with literature. Results: Phase 1 defines income level as the boundary within which low-income consumers perceived the importance of food product attributes. Satiety value and the affordability of food products override sensory attributes as the main decision choice, as usually applicable to higher income groups. Nutrient content was ranked least important. These findings can probably be allocated to the need of low-income consumers to satisfy priorities for survival (satiety value). Phase 2 reported no distinctive differences in the meaning of terms between groups. However, a difference exists in the depth of meaning. The majority of descriptive elements indicated a link to economic attributes. Strong cross-links between attributes were revealed through the findings. No major differences were found in the understanding of food product attributes between the respondents' groups and with existing literature. Two concept elements, the versatility of product use as linked to taste and the ability of sensory qualities to report quality of maize meal as linked to product safety, were revealed by the current study. Key words: Food product attributes, low-income households, staple food, maize meal, informal settlement, purchase choice.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Nutrition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Background: The high prevalence of iron deficiency and anaemia among South African children highlights the need for iron fortification, especially with a highly bioavailable iron compound. Fortification of staple foods is an adequate strategy to provide additional iron to populations at risk. In South Africa it is mandatory to fortify maize meal and wheat flour with iron, as well as other micronutrients. Elemental iron, specifically electrolytic iron, is currently the preferred choice but other compounds that might be more effective in alleviating iron deficiency are under consideration. Objectives: The objective of this study was to provide information about the bioavailability of ferrous fumarate and NaFeEDTA from maize meal porridge in young children, which would assist in selecting a bioavailable alternative to electrolytic iron in the South African National Food Fortification Programme, Methods: A randomized parallel study design was used, with each of the 2 groups further randomised to receive either one of two test regimens in a crossover design in which each child acted as his/her own control. Iron bioavailability was measured with a stable-isotope technique based on erythrocyte incorporation 15 days after intake. Results: The mean absorption of iron from NaFeEDTA and ferrous fumarate from the maize porridge meal was 11.5% and 9.29% respectively. NaFeEDTA and ferrous fumarate are both sufficiently bioavailable from a maize based meal rich in phytates. Conclusion: Both NaFeEDTA and ferrous fumarate would provide a physiologically important amount of iron should they replace electrolytic iron as fortificant in maize flour fortification. The final choice between ferrous fumarate and NaFeEDTA as when it comes to finding the alternative iron fortificant will depend on factors such as technical compatibility, bioavailability, relative cost and organoleptic characteristics. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Nutrition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007

Background: The high prevalence of iron deficiency and anaemia among South African children highlights the need for iron fortification, especially with a highly bioavailable iron compound. Fortification of staple foods is an adequate strategy to provide additional iron to populations at risk. In South Africa it is mandatory to fortify maize meal and wheat flour with iron, as well as other micronutrients. Elemental iron, specifically electrolytic iron, is currently the preferred choice but other compounds that might be more effective in alleviating iron deficiency are under consideration. Objectives: The objective of this study was to provide information about the bioavailability of ferrous fumarate and NaFeEDTA from maize meal porridge in young children, which would assist in selecting a bioavailable alternative to electrolytic iron in the South African National Food Fortification Programme, Methods: A randomized parallel study design was used, with each of the 2 groups further randomised to receive either one of two test regimens in a crossover design in which each child acted as his/her own control. Iron bioavailability was measured with a stable-isotope technique based on erythrocyte incorporation 15 days after intake. Results: The mean absorption of iron from NaFeEDTA and ferrous fumarate from the maize porridge meal was 11.5% and 9.29% respectively. NaFeEDTA and ferrous fumarate are both sufficiently bioavailable from a maize based meal rich in phytates. Conclusion: Both NaFeEDTA and ferrous fumarate would provide a physiologically important amount of iron should they replace electrolytic iron as fortificant in maize flour fortification. The final choice between ferrous fumarate and NaFeEDTA as when it comes to finding the alternative iron fortificant will depend on factors such as technical compatibility, bioavailability, relative cost and organoleptic characteristics. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Nutrition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007

This study is aimed at investigating specific preferences for various types of maize meal in two rural communities of Mthatha. Consumption data shows that in very poor households, maize was the only and most consumed foodstuff. The acceptability and opinions of different maize meal types were investigated by this study, as well as awareness of technologies, food fortification and genetic modification. The first phase of the study employed a qualitative approach in which numerical data was collected using sensory evaluations and second phase being a qualitative approach in the form of focus group interviews. In determining consumer acceptability, sensory evaluations were done amongst villagers from Ngqeleni and Mqanduli of selected age groups and gender. The sensory evaluation findings of the study indicate that fortified (special) maize meal is preferred over all other maize meal types, based on a higher liking of the aroma and colour. This was followed by unfortified (special) maize meal, although it was not significantly different to sifted white maize meal, sifted yellow maize meal, white sifted non-genetically modified maize meal, white genetically modified maize meal, in descending order. Younger adults (18-25years) had a stronger preference for white fortified maize meal, with older adults (>40years) all maize meal types similarly with the exception of yellow sifted maize meal. Males and females revealed equal liking behaviour. The Ngqeleni villagers preferred white fortified maize meal. Mqanduli participants preferred sifted maize meal, probable due to the fact that this is the staple food produced in the village. Focus groups were used to capture understanding and/or opinions of food fortification and genetic modification. Ngqeleni and Mqanduli are two villages approximately 30km east of Mthatha and south east of Mthatha, respectively. Findings from the two villages differed. Somewhat the Mqanduli community was more subsistence farming based, therefore aware of farming practices and their technical benefits but not the facts behind the technology. In Ngqeleni, the community was more aware of the concepts even though they were not exposed to them. This deduced a low illiteracy rate in Mqanduli compared to Ngqeleni and it was confirmed during discussions and through a mini survey. Poverty was also evident in Mqanduli as most of the community was unemployed. This encouraged the community to use locally grown maize meal more than the commercial fortified maize meal. The issue of yellow and white maize brought good discussions, which led to conclusions that the choice of yellow maize depends on individual preferences. Most of the respondents in these communities consumed yellow maize in one state or another, with a few who did not prefer it at all as maize meal. Most men preferred yellow maize and yellow maize meal, as they believed that it had higher satiety level than white maize and white maize meal. In conclusion, the study revealed very interesting differences in preference of different maize meal types. This could form part of understanding the dynamics related to staple foods in a rural context. / Dissertation (MConsSci)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Consumer Science / unrestricted

Thesis (M. Sc. Agriculture (Animal Production)) -- University of Limpopo, 2018 / Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of replacing maize meal with a low tannin sorghum meal (Macia) on productivity, gut morphology, carcass characteristics and bone morphometrics of Ross 308 broiler chickens aged one to 42 days. In each experiment, a total of 160 Ross 308 broiler chickens were assigned to a complete randomized design with 5 treatments, replicated 4 times with 8 chickens per replicate. Five diets were formulated to contain sorghum replacement levels at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% to meet the nutrient requirements of Ross 308 broiler chickens. Data was analysed using statistical analysis of variance. The first experiment determined the effect of replacing maize meal with a low tannin white sorghum meal on productivity and gut morphology of unsexed Ross 308 broiler chickens aged 1 to 21 days. Feed intake, growth rate, feed conversion ratio, live weight, N-retention, caecum and large intestine digesta pH, large intestine lengths, crop, gizzard, caecum and large intestine weights, gut intestinal villi height, crypt depth and villi height to crypt depth ratio of unsexed Ross 308 broiler chickens were not affected (P>0.05) by the treatment effects. However, replacement of maize meal with sorghum meal improved (P<0.05) metabolisable energy intake and small intestine digesta pH values. It was concluded that maize meal can be replaced by a low tannin white sorghum meal in the diet without adverse effects on unsexed Ross 308 broiler chickens aged one to 21 days. The second experiment determined the effect of replacing maize meal with sorghum meal on productivity, gut morphology, carcass characteristics and bone morphometrics of Ross 308 male broiler chickens aged 22 to 42 days. Replacing maize meal with sorghum meal had no effect (P>0.05) on feed intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR), live weight and nitrogen retention (N-retention) of male Ross 308 broiler chickens aged 22 to 42 days. Replacing maize meal with sorghum meal improved (P<0.05) ME intake and growth rate of the chickens. Caecum and large intestine digesta pH, GIT, caecum and large intestine lengths, small intestine, caecum and large intestine weights, gut intestinal villi height, crypt depth and villi height to crypt depth ratio, drumstick, thigh and wing weights, drumstick, thigh and wing colour, meat sensory evaluation, meat pH and bone morphometrics of male Ross 308 broiler chickens were not affected (P>0.05) by replacement of maize meal with sorghum vii meal. It was concluded that maize meal can be replaced by a low tannin white sorghum meal at 25, 50, 75 and 100% levels without causing adverse effects on productivity and carcass characteristics of male broiler chickens aged 22 to 42 days. Key words: Low tannin sorghum meal, Maize meal, Broiler chickens, Growth rate, Carcass characteristics. / National Research Foundation (NRF)