Wildlife crime is a longstanding problem. People have always considered living and non-living species as resources and tradable products used for pure economic gain, which then has a negative effect on biodiversity. In addition, wildlife crime involves poachers; armed non-state actors from source nations; international crime groups; institutional corruption across global network chains and a range of players involved in demand countries, which range from organized criminal syndicates, non-state actors and legitimate authorities. States and the International community are responding to wildlife crime in the form of law enforcement and regulatory initiatives. The question therefore arises, why does wildlife crime persist and what is the driving force behind these crimes and the people involved. For example, despite the broad legislative framework, the enforcement or rather lack thereof seems to be the reason that South African rhinos are still facing destruction. This paper aims to evaluate what the relationship is between wildlife crime with rhino poaching as a focus point, corruption and organised crime. It discusses the current enforcement framework, and investigates why the enforcement framework is not supporting the legislative framework. Lastly practical and structural solutions will be discussed and evaluated.

Oceans cover 70% of the world's surface and are a source of 90% of the world's biomass. Oceans provide the world's populations with food and facilitate international trade in goods. The shipping industry is a notable source (although not leading source) of marine pollution both from operational discharges and maritime incidents. With a vast number of ships navigating the world's oceans the impact of maritime incidents, especially of bulk carriers of oil, on the marine environment can be devastating. Ships which become distressed often attempt to find a 'place of refuge', being nearby port or a sheltered area within the territorial waters of a nearby coastal state. Traditionally these ships in distress had the customary law right of entry into port in order to ensure that persons on board could be saved. This position seems to have changed in the modern age. With the advancement of modern technology persons on board can be saved without bringing the distressed ship into port. In addition, these ships in distress present a serious risk to the marine environment within the waters of the coastal state. Coastal state practice seems to indicate that coastal states prioritise the preservation of their own sovereign waters over the needs of the particular ship in distress, especially where there is no risk to human life. It would seem that the traditional customary law rights of ships in distress do not apply to circumstances where there is no risk to the persons on board and where there is only a risk to the marine environment. These ships are now commonly called ships in need of assistance and are differentiated from ships in distress due to the fact that the risk is one to the marine environment and not to human life. The result of the refusing places of refuge creates the problem of ships in need of assistance as such ships proceed to beg for entry from other nearby coastal states usually being refused along the way. Through the discussion of notable maritime incidents of this nature it will be shown that such refusal of entry by coastal states into a place of refuge is a leading factor that increases the probability of a maritime incident occurring and thereby increasing the likelihood of damage to the marine environment. The concept of state sovereignty has been utilised as a justification for coastal states refusing entry into a place of refuge. This dissertation will discuss the concept of coastal state sovereignty paying particular attention to the legislative and enforcement rights of coastal states in the regulation of pollution and the protection of the marine environment. The international community has long since recognised that the protection of the marine environment is a general state duty and a principle of international customary law. The duty to protect and preserve the marine environment guides, informs and restricts coastal state action. This dissertation analyses the relationship between sovereignty and the duty to protect the marine environment in the context of ships in need of assistance in modern international law. This dissertation seeks to conclude with an overall analysis of the current customary and modern international law rights of ships in need of assistance in order to determine whether coastal states are obliged to grant places of refuge. The IMO Guidelines will be discussed to analyse whether same add any value to the problem of ships in need of assistance and to what end such guidelines indicate further development on this issue.

Includes bibliographical references. / Contemporary recognition of the need to expand existing protected area systems has culminated in the formulation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 by the parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This Strategic Plan incorporates 20 ambitious 'Aichi Biodiversity Targets'; with Target 11 specifically requiring that by 2020 'at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas, as well as, other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscape and seascape.' Target 11 requires compliance with a number of preconditions, two of which will be discussed in this dissertation. First, well-governed protected areas provide an established mechanism for both safeguarding habitats and populations of species, as well as, delivering important ecosystem services. It is, therefore, imperative that governance and planning measures are implemented effectively and equitably. Secondly, protected areas are required to be well-connected to the wider landscape through the use of corridors and ecological networks facilitating connectivity, adaption to climate change and the application of the ecosystem approach. Transboundary Natural Resource Management (TBNRM) provides a unique opportunity for realising both conditions.

Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface, and over 60 per cent of human population resides along the coast. A significant proportion of human protein supply comes from the sea, while the majority of global biodiversity and over 97 per cent of the biosphere is marine and is unknown. Invasive marine species are one of the four major threats to the world's oceans; the other three major threats are land-source marine pollution, over-exploitation of living marine resources and physical alteration and destruction of habitat.

Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface, and over 60 per cent of human population resides along the coast. A significant proportion of human protein supply comes from the sea, while the majority of global biodiversity and over 97 per cent of the biosphere is marine and is unknown. Invasive marine species are one of the four major threats to the world's oceans; the other three major threats are land-source marine pollution, over-exploitation of living marine resources and physical alteration and destruction of habitat.

Regional Programmes for the Protection of the Marine Environment began with agencies and organisations that were mainly scientific in nature. These early organisations were research - oriented and although they could recommend action they had no regulatory powers, nor could they initiate any action. The oldest of such organisation is the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) established in 1902. It was active in the North Atlantic and Baltic Sea areas carrying out scientific studies with investigations concerning exploitation of living and non-living marine resources. ICES later became involved with marine pollution studies and as a result set up a committee in 1960 to deal with it. In 1967 ICES set up a working group. This was one of the first signs of regional co-operation regarding the environment. Another such organisation was the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO) now International Maritime Organisation (IMO).

Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface, and over 60 per cent of human population resides along the coast. A significant proportion of human protein supply comes from the sea, while the majority of global biodiversity and over 97 per cent of the biosphere is marine and is unknown. Invasive marine species are one of the four major threats to the world's oceans; the other three major threats are land-source marine pollution, over-exploitation of living marine resources and physical alteration and destruction of habitat.

The Coal Industry in South Africa exported 54,5 million tons in 1993, providing R4,2 billion in export revenues, second only to gold. Apart from small parcels of coal exported through Durban and Maputo, coal is exported through the Richards Bay Coal Terminal. As new producers such as Indonesia, Columbia and China enters the International Market, equally (and sometimes better) placed than South Africa to penetrate markets in Europe and the Far East, the South African Coal Industry cannot afford to damage its' competitive position through accusations of "hot coal" problems. In this thesis, the phenomenon of spontaneous healing, combustion and methane emission from coal cargoes, will be discussed, and the F.O.B. sales of coal will be commented upon.

In earlier shipping days, salvage services were often provided to vessels and maritime properties in danger at sea by individual acts. This was done without salvage contract between the parties. The recent availability of instantaneous means of communication and especially motor driven vessels has resulted in services in the nature of salvage having come to be governed frequently by an agreement in which both the provider and the recipient have been held to owe duties to each other. A factor contributing to this development was the introduction of· Standard Forms of Salvage Agreements. These provided for quantification of the salvor's remuneration by arbitration if it could not be agreed upon by the parties.

Thesis (doctoral)--University of Helsinki, 1981. / Errata slip and notice of public dissertation discussion inserted. Includes indexes. Includes bibliographical references (p. [299]-336).