Equitable access to essential medicines is a major challenge for policy-makers world-wide, including Central and Eastern European countries. This study analyses whether socioeconomic determinants influence the use of prescribed and non-prescribed medicines in eight Central and Eastern European countries (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia). Further, the study discusses observed (in)equalities in medicine use in the context of the pharmaceutical policy framework and the implementation in these countries. The study is based on cross-sectional data from the first wave of the European Health Interview Survey (2007-2009). Multivariate logistic regression analyses were carried out to determine the association between socioeconomic status and medicine use (prescribed and non-prescribed medicines). This was supplemented by a pharmaceutical policy analysis based on indicators in four policy dimensions (sustainable funding, affordability, availability and accessibility, and rational selection and use of medicines). Overall, the analysis showed a gradient favouring individuals from higher socioeconomic groups in the consumption of non-prescribed medicines in the eight surveyed countries, and for prescribed medicines in three countries (Latvia, Poland, Romania). The pharmaceutical systems in the eight countries were, to varying degrees, characterized by a lack of (public) funding, thus resulting in high and growing shares of private financing (including co-payments for prescribed medicines), inefficiencies in the selection of medicines into reimbursement and limitations in medicines availability. Pharmaceutical policies aiming at reducing inequalities in medicine use require not only a consideration of the role of co-payments and other private expenditure but also adequate investment in medicines and transparent and clear processes regarding the inclusion of medicines into reimbursement. (authors' abstract)

A Avaliação de Tecnologias em Saúde (ATS) é investigada neste trabalho como uma forma de minimizar as consequências da excessiva judicialização do direito à saúde, ao vincular o conhecimento científico à tomada de decisão, já que pondera riscos, benefícios, custos e impactos referentes à ética e equidade, no estudo de uma determinada tecnologia. O direito ao acesso a medicamentos é apenas uma faceta do direito à saúde, considerando a abrangência de seu conceito. Todavia, a assistência farmacêutica é hoje uma das áreas mais problemáticas e assíduas no debate sobre o direito à saúde, motivo pelo qual o foco deste estudo são as avaliações das tecnologias medicamentosas. Um dos fatores mais relevantes no incremento dos custos em saúde é a utilização de tecnologias cada vez mais caras e de uso específico, cuja inovação, nessa área, tende a ser cumulativa, e não substitutiva. Daí a importância de políticas públicas eficazes em saúde, que consigam gerir as tecnologias de modo a cumprir os princípios de universalidade, equidade e integralidade do SUS. Este trabalho é orientado pela interdisciplinaridade inerente ao estudo dos direitos humanos, pautando-se em pesquisas teóricas e documentais que demonstram tanto a evolução do direito à saúde no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, quanto a contextualização e a afirmação da ATS como pressuposto à incorporação de tecnologias no SUS e auxiliar na tomada de decisões, possuindo um papel fundamental como fator de justiça social e instrumento de garantia dos direitos humanos. / The Health Technology Assessment (HTA) is studied as a way of minimizing the consequences of the excessive judicialization of the right to health when taking decisions is linked to the scientific knowledge. It weighs risks, benefits, costs and impacts referred to ethics and equity in the study of a certain technology. The right of access to medicines is only a tiny part of the right to health considering the scope of its concept. However, the pharmacy assistance is currently one of the most problem and constant subject presents in debates about the right to health, reason why the focus of this study are the evaluations of medicines technologies. One of the most relevant fact in the increasing of costs in health is the using of technologies increasingly expensive and specific, which innovation tend to be cumulative and not substitutive. That is the importance of effective public policies in health, which are able to manage the technologies in a way of compliance with universality, equity and integrality principles of SUS. This work is oriented by the intrinsic interdisciplinarity of the human rights studies and guided by theoretical and documental researches that demonstrate the evolution of the right to health in Brazilian legal system and the contextualization and predication of HTA as an important point to be considered when incorporating technologies in SUS and taking decisions, having an important role as a factor of social justice and human rights guaranties.

A Avaliação de Tecnologias em Saúde (ATS) é investigada neste trabalho como uma forma de minimizar as consequências da excessiva judicialização do direito à saúde, ao vincular o conhecimento científico à tomada de decisão, já que pondera riscos, benefícios, custos e impactos referentes à ética e equidade, no estudo de uma determinada tecnologia. O direito ao acesso a medicamentos é apenas uma faceta do direito à saúde, considerando a abrangência de seu conceito. Todavia, a assistência farmacêutica é hoje uma das áreas mais problemáticas e assíduas no debate sobre o direito à saúde, motivo pelo qual o foco deste estudo são as avaliações das tecnologias medicamentosas. Um dos fatores mais relevantes no incremento dos custos em saúde é a utilização de tecnologias cada vez mais caras e de uso específico, cuja inovação, nessa área, tende a ser cumulativa, e não substitutiva. Daí a importância de políticas públicas eficazes em saúde, que consigam gerir as tecnologias de modo a cumprir os princípios de universalidade, equidade e integralidade do SUS. Este trabalho é orientado pela interdisciplinaridade inerente ao estudo dos direitos humanos, pautando-se em pesquisas teóricas e documentais que demonstram tanto a evolução do direito à saúde no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, quanto a contextualização e a afirmação da ATS como pressuposto à incorporação de tecnologias no SUS e auxiliar na tomada de decisões, possuindo um papel fundamental como fator de justiça social e instrumento de garantia dos direitos humanos. / The Health Technology Assessment (HTA) is studied as a way of minimizing the consequences of the excessive judicialization of the right to health when taking decisions is linked to the scientific knowledge. It weighs risks, benefits, costs and impacts referred to ethics and equity in the study of a certain technology. The right of access to medicines is only a tiny part of the right to health considering the scope of its concept. However, the pharmacy assistance is currently one of the most problem and constant subject presents in debates about the right to health, reason why the focus of this study are the evaluations of medicines technologies. One of the most relevant fact in the increasing of costs in health is the using of technologies increasingly expensive and specific, which innovation tend to be cumulative and not substitutive. That is the importance of effective public policies in health, which are able to manage the technologies in a way of compliance with universality, equity and integrality principles of SUS. This work is oriented by the intrinsic interdisciplinarity of the human rights studies and guided by theoretical and documental researches that demonstrate the evolution of the right to health in Brazilian legal system and the contextualization and predication of HTA as an important point to be considered when incorporating technologies in SUS and taking decisions, having an important role as a factor of social justice and human rights guaranties.

Yes / ackground Patient access to medicines in the community at end-of-life (pertaining to the last year of life) is vital for symptom control. Supply of such medicines is known to be problematic, but despite this, studies have failed to examine the issues affecting community pharmacy access to palliative medicines. Objective To identify community pharmacists' and pharmaceutical wholesalers'/distributors' views on supply chain processes and challenges in providing access to medicines during the last year of life, to characterise supply in this UK context. Methods Qualitative design, with telephone interviews analysed using Framework Analysis. Coding frames were developed iteratively with data analysed separately and then triangulated to examine differences in perspectives. Findings Thirty-two interviews (24 community pharmacists and 8 wholesalers/distributors) were conducted. To ensure appropriate palliative medicines were available despite occasional shortages, community pharmacists worked tirelessly. They navigated a challenging interface with wholesalers/distributors, the Drug Tariff to ensure reimbursement, and multiple systems. IT infrastructures and logistics provided by wholesalers/distributors were often helpful to supply into community pharmacies resulting in same or next day deliveries. However, the inability of manufacturers to predict operational issues or accurately forecast demand led wholesalers/distributors to encounter shortages with manufactured stock levels, reducing timely access to medicines. Conclusions The study identifies for the first time how palliative medicines supply into community pharmacy, can be improved. A conceptual model was developed, illustrating how influencing factors affect responsiveness and speed of medicines access for patients. Work is required to strengthen this supply chain via effective relationship-building and information-sharing, to prevent patients facing disruptions in access to palliative medicines at end-of-life.