A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2013 / Cyperaceae (sedge) nutlets dominate the archaeobotanical assemblage of fruits and seeds recovered from the Middle Stone Age deposits at the rock shelter Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Sievers 2006). My aim is to investigate the implications of the nutlet presence in terms of human behaviour and to demonstrate that the nutlets were likely brought into the shelter on sedge culms (stems) deliberately harvested by people and informally placed on the shelter floor to provide “bedding”, a surface for working, resting or sleeping. I use various empirical and experimental approaches to confirm the use of sedges for bedding at Sibudu as early as ~77 000 years ago, almost 50 000 years earlier than any previously identified archaeological bedding. The bedding consists of the sedges Cladium mariscus subsp. jamaicense, Scleria natalensis, S. melanomphala, Cyperus sp. and a panicoid grass, identified through Scanning Electron Microscopy To investigate repeated and deliberate burning of bedding at Sibudu, I use experimental micromorphology and I compare the signatures of the Sibudu sediments with burned fresh sedge and grass bedding. I undertake further fire experiments, also in open air situations, to answer questions about burning sedge beds and the taphonomic implications. Experimental sedge bedding fires are hot and brief. The matrix beneath the fires affects the temperatures achieved both on the surface directly under the fire, and at depths of 2 cm and 5 cm below the surface; an ash matrix conducts heat more effectively than a matrix of 1–2 mm sized particles and allows for carbonisation of buried nutlets. The burning of dry and green bedding indicates that once the bedding is burning, the temperatures are sufficient to carbonise sedge nutlets below both dry and moist bedding. The methodological innovations I introduce are the use of experimental micromorphology to address an archaeobotanical question and the use of GIS-based coexistence analysis of southern African archaeobotanical data to make interpretations about past climate. The analysis develops previous palaeovegetation research in the area (Sievers 2006; Wadley et al. 2008) and provides an environmental context for people/plant activities at Sibudu.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2016. / This study is within the context of the Howiesons Poort Industry of the Middle Stone Age. This is a dynamic period of increasing behavioural and material complexity. In the lithic assembles, this can be seen in a strong bias towards the selection of high-quality fine-grained rocks. This has often been interpreted as evidence for long distance travel, reciprocal exchange, or even increased mobility. This study aims to determine what influence the mechanical properties of rock types exerted on the Middle Stone Age assemblages at Sibudu. This requires a consideration of the distribution of rock types across the landscape surrounding Sibudu Cave. The study was limited to hornfels and dolerite as these rock types dominate the Sibudu assemblage, and quartz and quartzite that were sometimes used at the site are exceedingly difficult to collect in large enough sample sizes to conduct experiments. It was important to carry out tests on the mechanical properties of hornfels and dolerite and to characterise them. Hardness, roughness, elasticity and brittleness dictate the ease of knapping as well as the durability of flaked tools and these rock properties can be measured by the mechanical tests described here. To understand how these properties affect the assemblage in practice, dolerite and hornfels flakes were produced and used experimentally for cutting and scraping leather. The edge damage produced was compared. Finally, preliminary analysis was undertaken of square C4, layer PGS, which forms part of the oldest Howiesons Poort layer at Sibudu. The information and insights gained from the mechanical tests and experimental work were used to interpret the role of mechanical properties for the archaeological sample of PGS. The results show that all rocks used at Sibudu are local, and do not support any models of long distance travel/trade, reciprocal exchange, or models of increased mobility. Dolerite and hornfels form the bulk of the assemblage at all times (except briefly in the post-Howiesons Poort), and there is a bias towards the selection of fine-grained rocks during the Howiesons Poort. Dolerite can be characterised as hard, tough, elastic, and rough, while hornfels is hard, brittle, and fine-grained. These properties affect knapping and the qualities of a tool’s edge. The properties of hornfels allow for knapping accuracy and predictability, and it is better suited to blade production and cutting. However, tool edges are not robust. Dolerite is not as easy to knap, but produces tools with a robust edge that are particularly suited to scraping. Each rock type appears to have fulfilled a different function at Sibudu. Most rock studies geochemically source rocks, establish models of rock procurement or show trends in rock selection for artefact classes. Mechanical studies of rocks have typically formed part of heat treatment debates (Brown et al 2009; Domanski & Webb 1992, 1994; Webb & Domanski 2008). Through the combined approach of mechanical testing, experimental knapping and tool use, and lithic analysis, this research provides a context for possible rock procurement choices at a time in the past when many African sites reveal a changing pattern of rock selection. / LG2017

A Masters Dissertation submitted to the faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand in fulfillment of the requirements for the Masters` degree. Johannesburg 2016. / The Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels (c. 100 – 72 ka) (thousand years) at Blombos Cave, South Africa, contain buried remnants of human existence and their activities (these include ochre-stained shell beads, processed ochre pieces, bone tools, stone tools, and ochre processing toolkits). A preliminary study on the occupation layers at Blombos Cave was done in order to chemically and physically characterise the sediment deposits. The interpretation of the information preserved in these sediments, as a result of human activities, was achieved by using the following characterisation techniques: FT-IR, ICP-OES/MS, CHNS analysis as well as pH and EC measurements. Fluctuations in the bio-essential trace elements (K, P, Mg, Ca, S, Fe, Al, Cr, Na, Cu and C) and in the markers of in situ burning (P, K, C, Ca and Mg) through the MSA levels suggested a non-contiunous anthropogenic occupation of the cave. Further, the dark coloured layers were indicative of periods when heavy human activities, such as fire use, were encoutered. These layers were characterised by high levels of P, K, C, Ca and Mg, also elevated pH and EC levels were observed. The calcite origin for these sediment deposits was confirmed to be pyrogenic. The layers found to contain large bone, ochre and shell densities (with no evidence of fire use) had high levels of Fe, P high Ca and low EC. The calcite origin for these sediment deposits was geogenic. Biogenic calcite was only observed in the more recent CA and CC layers. Substantial amounts of ochre assemblages were recovered from the MSA levels at Blombos Cave. Among these was an ochre processing toolkit recovered from the CP layer (c.100 ka). Ochre is abundant in African archaeological sites after 165 ka and is likely to have played a symbolic role in the lives of prehistoric people. It contains an iron-oxide mineral as well as accessory minerals. When mixed with a binder (such as fat or water) ochre can be used as a pigment. A large number of fragmented bone remains were found in the M1 and M2 levels. It is suggested that the majority of the fragmentation occurred while the bones were in a fresh state; implying marrow extraction by the site occupants. The exploitation of bone marrow was crucial in order to extract the fat and use it as a binder during the pigment production. Some of the broken and marrow-extracted bones were heated and used as fuel during seasons when wood was scarce while the other bones were deliberately engraved for symbolic intent. The characterisation of the ochre processing toolkit was achieved by mineralogical analysis and elemental fingerprinting. FT-IR analysis revealed that the general matrix of the ochre samples comprised of hematite (Fe2O3) or goethite (α-FeO(OH)) as the main chromophores and clay minerals (such as kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), muscovite [(KF)2(Al2O3)3(SiO2)6(H2O)] and illite [K(Al4Si2O9(OH)3)]), calcite (CaCO3) and quartz (SiO2) as the main accessory minerals. PXRD analysis confirmed Fe2O3, Al2Si2O5 (OH)4, [K(Al4Si2O9(OH)3)] and SiO2 to be the predominant mineral phases in the ochre, implying this specific type of ochre was preferred during the production of the pigment. Fe2O3 contributed the red hue and the aluminosilicates their clayey properties making them good extenders of the pigment. Multivariate statistics and Fe ratios made it possible to identify elements important for differentiating the ochre recovered from the CP layer. Analysis of variance (ANOVA one-way) showed a statistically significant difference between the ochre residues in terms of trace elemental profiling. The variance suggested different geological origins for the ochre. FT-IR was used as a screening technique for any organic residues associated with the toolkit and GC-MS was used to identify the preserved organic residues. These were mostly lipids and terpenes. The identified bio-molecular markers; stearic acid and dehydroabietic acid were exploited to give insight on the origin of the residues. Stearic acid suggested the use of animal fat while dehydroabietic acid implied the use of a resin (potentially as a binder in the pigment). The characterisation investigations revealed that the prehistoric populations at Blombos Cave specifically sourced hematite and aluminosilicate- containing ochre pigments in order to fulfil their social and cultural demands. The MSA site occupants’ chemical understanding of these materials suggested they were technologically advanced. Keywords: Blombos Cave, MSA levels, ochre, mineralogical analysis and elemental fingerprinting. / LG2017

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2016 / The analysis of faunal remains from archaeological sites can reveal much about past behaviour, palaeoenvironments and bone technology. This is especially pertinent for the Middle Stone Age (MSA): a period that corresponds to both the behavioural and anatomical development of Homo sapiens. In this thesis, I examine the faunal remains from Blombos Cave (BBC) and Klipdrift Shelter (KDS), two significant MSA sites about 45 km apart along the present-day southern Cape coast. The focus of the analyses is on the Still Bay (SB) layers (c. 75 – 68 thousand years ago [ka]) at BBC and the Howiesons Poort (HP) layers (c. 65 – 59 ka) at KDS. The aim of this thesis is to explore subsistence behaviour and environmental conditions during the SB and HP in the fynbos region of the southern Cape. I also investigate the effects of trampling on bone and whether trampling and other types of taphonomic modification can be used to infer occupational intensity in cave and rock shelter sites. Taphonomic data indicate that significant differences exist between the SB and HP faunal assemblages at BBC and KDS, respectively. Carnivores and scavengers had a greater effect on the SB than on the KDS assemblage. Furthermore, subsistence activities at KDS focused on marrow extraction while filleting was probably an important strategy at BBC. Taxonomic analyses indicate that the representative fauna from both sites is generally consistent with what is expected in the fynbos biome but with some noticeable differences. Grazers, for example, are significantly more prevalent at KDS than BBC while seal is more common at BBC. Other zooarchaeological data also show differences in prey selection strategies. Diet breadth is more extensive at KDS than at BBC, although bovid mortality profiles at BBC are more juvenile-dominated. I propose that many of these contrasting patterns imply that subsistence intensification is more evident in the HP layers at KDS than in the SB at BBC. Moreover, the taphonomic data suggest that the SB at BBC was a low-intensity, sporadically occupied period in contrast to the high-intensity occupations, particularly during the middle layers of the HP at KDS. The results of the KDS analysis also indicate a shift in environmental conditions during the HP and show links between prey selection, the environment and occupational intensity during this period. Trampling experiments indicate that trampling can generally be distinguished from butcherymarks, although bioturbation in shelly deposits can sometimes result in marks that mimic cutiii marks. More importantly, experiments show that pitting and abrasion are a more significant indicator of trampling than lines that resemble cut-marks. Based on these experiments, I argue that trampling modification can be used to infer occupational intensity at archaeological sites. Trampling marks in the KDS assemblage, for example, correspond well with the high occupational periods as indicated by other taphonomic data. Trampling and taphonomic data support the notion that BBC was a low-intensity, sporadically occupied site during the SB. By incorporating taxonomic, taphonomic and novel methods of skeletal-part analyses, this study contributes to our knowledge of human subsistence and palaeoenvironments during the SB and HP in the southern Cape. This thesis strengthens and adds to other research that has demonstrated variability in subsistence behaviour during the MSA. / LG2017

Thesis (D Phil)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Late Pleistocene, Middle Stone Age artefact sequence at the Klasies River main site, was studied to establish what information this held for inferences on the emergence of symbolic thought and communication. The approach adopted was to complement traditional typological analysis by a technological study of artefact production within the framework of the chafne opératoire. The results show that technology was aimed at producing preformed blanks. In the choice of materials, the technique and method of blank production and the retouch of blanks, arbitrary or stylistic choices were made. Changes in stylistic conventions can be documented through the sequence. Changing conventions in artefact production show that the lives of the people who made the artefacts were structured in a symbolic web. These results together with evidence from evolutionary biology, show that by at least 115 000 years ago, people were able to think and speak symbolically. This African archaeological evidence for the emergence of symbolism, a defining attribute of modem peoples, is much older than previously considered. KEYWORDS: Klasies River, Middle Stone Age, technology, symbolic communication, human evolution. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Latere Pleistoseen, Middel Steentydperk artefakte by Klasiesrivier vindplaas is bestudeer om te bepaal watter kennis ingewin kan word aangaande die ontstaan van simboliese denkwyse en kommunikasie. Die benadering wat gevolg is, was om tradisionele tipologiese analise te komplementeer met 'n tegnologiese studie van artefak produksie binne die raamwerk van die chafne opératoire. Die resultate demonstreer dat tegnologie gemik was op die produksie van voorafgevormde skilfers. Die keuse van roumateriaal, die tegniek en metode van produksie en die herafwerk van skilfers is gelei deur arbitrêre stilistiese keuses. Veranderinge in hierdie konvensies kan gedokumenteer word deur die hele sekwens. Hierdie verandering is tipies van mense wie se lewens gestruktureer word deur 'n simboliese web. Dié resultate, en dié van evolusionêre biologie, dui daarop dat mense reeds teen 115 000 jaar gelede simboliese denke en spraak magtig was. Hierdie bewyse vanuit Afrika vir die ontstaan van simboliese gedrag is veel vroeër as vantevore gereken. SLEUTEL WOORDE: Klasiesrivier, Middel Steentydperk, tegnologie, simboliese kommunikasie, menslike evolusie.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2014. / The site of Canteen Kopje in Barkly West, South Africa, has provided the archaeological record with an invaluable collection of Earlier Stone Age artefacts. An alluvial deposit approximately 1km from the modern Vaal River, the site contains an abundance of artefacts. A 2007 – 2009 excavation in Pit 6 has provided an assemblage of over 15,000 artefacts that has been dated by cosmogenic nuclide burial method. Three distinct assemblages show technological changes through time of the earlier Acheulean industrial complex. The youngest industry, the Prepared Core Technology Assemblage, is dated to 1.2 ± .07 Ma and contains Victoria West prepared core technology. Beneath it is the Organised Core Assemblage which is void of Victoria West prepared core technology but contains cores that demonstrate more organised knapping techniques in the form of asymmetrical control. This assemblage is dated to 1.51 ±0.8 Ma. Finally, the underlying Basal Early Acheulean Assembage lacks both prepared cores and organised cores and is >1.51 Ma in age. The abundance of large angular clasts of andesite in the area made multiple knapping strategies effective for the manufacture of large flakes. A technological sequence in the knapping strategies has emerged in this excavation, from simple cores to organised cores and finally prepared cores. The older technologies clearly display the roots of prepared core technology in the asymmetrical control of the organised knapping methods. The overall success of the knapping strategies prior to the appearance of the Victoria West industry in the Canteen Kopje archaeological record creates questions as to why more complex strategies might have been implemented over time. Analysis of the assemblages from the Pit 6 excavation fails to provide a clear technological explanation within the empirical data as to why this change occurs. This research therefore argues that the Victoria West prepared core knapping strategy is a localized stone age culturally motivated knapping tradition.