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  • About
  • The Global ETD Search service is a free service for researchers to find electronic theses and dissertations. This service is provided by the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations.
    Our metadata is collected from universities around the world. If you manage a university/consortium/country archive and want to be added, details can be found on the NDLTD website.
1

Experimental investigation of pore scale velocity within micro porous media

Sen, Debjyoti Unknown Date
No description available.
2

Estudo da regenera??o de aditivos para catalisadores de craqueamento aluminofosfatos (ALPO s)e silicoaluminofosfatos (SAPO s)

Silva, Arilson Jos? do Nascimento 12 November 2007 (has links)
Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:41:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 ArilsonJNS.pdf: 3626777 bytes, checksum: 66cf6233a47c3a2d53f0c71191f75125 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-11-12 / Heterogeneous catalysts such as aluminophosphate and silicoaluminophosphate, molecular sieves with AEL of ALPO-11 and SAPO-11, were synthesized by the hydrothermal method with the following molar composition: 2.9 Al +3.2 P + 3.5 DIPA +32.5 H20 (ALPO-11); 2.9 Al +3.2 P + 0.5 Si + 3.5 DIPA +32.5 H20 (SAPO-11) starting from silica (only in the SAPO-11), pseudoboehmite, orthophosphoric acid (85%) and water, in the presence of a di-isopropylamine organic template. The crystallization process occurred when the reactive hydrogel was charged into a vessel and autoclaved at 170?C for a period of 48 hours under autogeneous pressure. The obtained materials were washed, dried and calcined to remove the molecular sieves of DIPA. The samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), thermo gravimetric differential thermal analysis (TG/DTA) and nitrogen adsorption (BET). The acidic properties were determined using adsorption of n-butylamine followed by programmed thermodessorption. This method revealed that ALPO-11 has weaker acid sites due to structural defects, while SAPO-11 shows an acidity that ranges from weak to moderate. However, a small quantity of strong acid sites could be detected there. The deactivation of the catalysts was conducted by the cracking of the n-hexane in a fixed bed continuous flow microrreator coupled on line to a gas chromatograph. The main products obtained were: ethane, propane, isobutene, n-butane, n-pentane and isopentane. The Vyazovkin (model-free) kinetics method was used to determine the regeneration and removal of the organic template / Foram sintetizados catalisadores heterog?neos do tipo aluminofosfatos e silicoaluminofosfatos pelo m?todo hidrot?rmico a partir de alumina hidratada (pseudobohemita), ?cido fosf?rico 85%, s?lica gel, ?gua e diisopropilamina (DIPA) usada como direcionador estrutural org?nico. Estes reagentes foram misturados a fim de obter g?is com as seguintes composi??es: 2.9 Al +3.2 P + 3.5 DIPA +32.5 H20; para ALPO e 2.9 Al +3.2 P + 0.5 Si + 3.5 DIPA +32.5 H20 para SAPO. O processo de cristaliza??o ocorreu ? temperatura de 170 0C durante 48 h, quando foi poss?vel obter as fases puras para ALPO 11 e SAPO 11. Os materiais obtidos foram lavados com ?gua deionizada, secos e calcinados para remover as mol?culas do direcionador. Os materiais foram caracterizados por difra??o de raios-X (DRX), microscopia eletr?nica de varredura (MEV), espectroscopia de absor??o na regi?o do infravermelho (FTIR), an?lise t?rmica via TG/DTG e adsor??o de nitrog?nio (BET). As propriedades ?cidas foram determinadas usando adsor??o de n-butilamina seguida de termodessor??o programada. Este m?todo revelou que o ALPO 11 possuem s?tios ?cidos fracos devido a defeitos estruturais, j? a amostra SAPO 11 apresenta uma acidez tipicamente fraca a moderada. Entretanto, uma pequena quantidade de s?tios ?cidos fortes foi detectada. A desativa??o dos catalisadores foi conduzida pela rea??o de craqueamento do n-hexano em um microrreator catal?tico de leito fixo com fluxo cont?nuo acoplado em linha com um cromat?grafo a g?s. Como principais produtos foram obtidos: etano, propano, isobutano, n-butano,e n-pentano, isopentano. Para determinar a regenera??o e a remo??o do direcionador org?nico foi aplicado o m?todo cin?tico Vyazovkin (Model Free)
3

OPTICAL MEASUREMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL URANIUM USING POROUS SILICA MATERIALS

Chen, Chien-Cheng 17 June 2010 (has links)
The focus of this research is on the optical measurement of uranyl in a solid matrix using fluorescence spectroscopy. Nanoporous silica-based materials were used to extract uranyl from contaminated soil and to enhance the fluorescence intensity and lifetime. The fluorescence lifetime and intensity of uranyl ions adsorbed on porous silica-based materials of varying pore size was measured as a function of pH and in the presence of fluoride. The feasibility of uranyl fluorescence detection on the top of soil by silica gel is carried out by four types of natural soil. The results show that the uranyl fluorescence intensity can be enhanced by approximately two orders of magnitude by the silica nanoporous matrix from pH 4-12 with the greatest enhancement occurring from pH 4-7. The enhanced fluorescence lifetime can be used in time-gated measurements to help minimize the influence of background environmental fluorophores. The pH and the fluoride variation causes different uranyl speciation and results in a peak shift in the fluorescence spectrum. The mechanism of the uranyl ion on the silica nanoporous matrix was studied through 15 different silica materials with different water content ratios and various concentrations of uranium on different silica structures. The result shows that the particle size, pore size, water content and uranyl concentration on silica surfaces are all important factors for optimizing the fluorescence intensity. The spacing between silica materials, either the pore inside materials or the space between particles, causes the variety of uranyl distribution on the material surface and changes the fluorescence performance. Also, X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) is used to identify the possible uranyl surface species on silica. The fluorescence emission spectra from silica materials and the XPS results are consistent with the presence of two different uranyl compounds. The specific surface area of silica materials plays an important role on uranyl adsorption mechanism. To further enhance the sensitivity, an optical ball lens was used to preferentially direct the fluorescence signal toward the excitation source in standoff measurements. The application of the ball lens was found to increase the detection distance up to 14 times.
4

Investigação do desempenho de diferentes estruturas microporosas tubulares na retenção de bactérias em suspensão por microfiltração tangencial / Investigation of the performance of diferent micro-porous tubular structures in the retention of bacteria emulsion by crossflow microfiltration

Haneda, Renata Natsumi 29 March 2006 (has links)
Neste trabalho são apresentados resultados experimentais do processo de filtração tangencial de uma suspensão in natura (soro de leite) aplicada na retenção de bactérias do grupo coliforme. No estudo do processo de separação utilizaram-se tubos microporosos de -alumina (Al2O3) e membranas comerciais de tamanho médio de poros no valor de 0,8 e 1,2m. Os tubos microporosos cerâmicos foram sinterizados à temperatura entre 1400 e 1450ºC, os quais foram caracterizados pela técnica de porosimetria por intrusão de mercúrio, constatando o tamanho médio de poros de 0,3 a 0,5µm. Após a sinterização, os tubos cerâmicos foram sujeitos à impregnação com citrato de prata (material bactericida). As membranas comerciais também passaram pelo mesmo processo de impregnação. Com o uso da técnica de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) foi realizada uma caracterização da morfologia e da composição dos meios microporosos. Ensaios experimentais do processo de microfiltração foram realizados com soro de leite, com o objetivo de estudar a influência de parâmetros fluidodinâmicos tais como: número de Reynolds e pressão transmembrana, além de analisar a retenção da bactéria, Escherichia coli, em regime de escoamento para Reynolds entre 2700 e 32000 e pressões transmembrana entre 1 e 4 bar. O permeado foi analisado seguindo normas da 20ª. Edição dos Métodos Padrões para Análise de Água e Esgoto, e todos os experimentos seguiram padrões de segurança para minimizar a possibilidade de contaminação do meio junto à análise do material filtrado. A manutenção fisiológica das bactérias foi controlada com os parâmetros de pH e temperatura, respectivamente mantidos entre 6 e 7,0 e de 25 - 30ºC ± 1 ºC. Nestas condições de escoamento, da solução e do meio filtrante, o processo foi considerado satisfatório com vazões transmembrana entre 10 L/(h.m2) e 120 L/(h.m2). / This work reports experimental results of the crossflow microfiltration of emulsion (whey of milk) applied in the microrganism retention of the coliform group. In the study of the separation process were used micro-porous tubes of -alumina (Al2O3) and commercial membranes of average size pores of 0,8 and 1,2m. The micro-porous tubes were sinterised with temperature between 1400 and 1450 ºC and after, were characterized by technique of porosimetry for mercury intrusion, verifing average size of pores between 0,3 and 0,5µm. After the sintering, the ceramic tubes were treated with a citrate of silver solution (bactericidal substance), and submitted to synthesis for removed the organic matters. The commercial membranes were also impregnated by this process. With the scanning eletronic microscopy made the characterization of the morfology and micro-porous structures composition. Experimental tests of the crossflow microfiltration process were performed with whey of milk, with objective to study the influence of fluid dynamics parameters (Reynolds number and flux transmembrane) and to analyse the bacteria retention in turbulent regime, having Re between 2700 and 32000, transmembrane pressure (enters 1 to 4bar) and transmembrane flux between 0,5 and 300 L/h.m2. The permeate was analysed by the 20ª. Edition of the Standard Methods for Examination of Water, and all the experiments followed standards of security to restrict the possibility of contamination of the permeated and the atmosphere. The physiology of the bacteria was controlled by parameters of pH and temperature, respectively keeped between 6 and 7,0 and of 25 - 30ºC ± 1 ºC. In the conditions of flow, of the solution and system flow, the retention was considerated satisfactory with transmembrane flux between 10 L/(h.m2) and 120L/(h.m2).
5

Investigação do desempenho de diferentes estruturas microporosas tubulares na retenção de bactérias em suspensão por microfiltração tangencial / Investigation of the performance of diferent micro-porous tubular structures in the retention of bacteria emulsion by crossflow microfiltration

Renata Natsumi Haneda 29 March 2006 (has links)
Neste trabalho são apresentados resultados experimentais do processo de filtração tangencial de uma suspensão in natura (soro de leite) aplicada na retenção de bactérias do grupo coliforme. No estudo do processo de separação utilizaram-se tubos microporosos de -alumina (Al2O3) e membranas comerciais de tamanho médio de poros no valor de 0,8 e 1,2m. Os tubos microporosos cerâmicos foram sinterizados à temperatura entre 1400 e 1450ºC, os quais foram caracterizados pela técnica de porosimetria por intrusão de mercúrio, constatando o tamanho médio de poros de 0,3 a 0,5µm. Após a sinterização, os tubos cerâmicos foram sujeitos à impregnação com citrato de prata (material bactericida). As membranas comerciais também passaram pelo mesmo processo de impregnação. Com o uso da técnica de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) foi realizada uma caracterização da morfologia e da composição dos meios microporosos. Ensaios experimentais do processo de microfiltração foram realizados com soro de leite, com o objetivo de estudar a influência de parâmetros fluidodinâmicos tais como: número de Reynolds e pressão transmembrana, além de analisar a retenção da bactéria, Escherichia coli, em regime de escoamento para Reynolds entre 2700 e 32000 e pressões transmembrana entre 1 e 4 bar. O permeado foi analisado seguindo normas da 20ª. Edição dos Métodos Padrões para Análise de Água e Esgoto, e todos os experimentos seguiram padrões de segurança para minimizar a possibilidade de contaminação do meio junto à análise do material filtrado. A manutenção fisiológica das bactérias foi controlada com os parâmetros de pH e temperatura, respectivamente mantidos entre 6 e 7,0 e de 25 - 30ºC ± 1 ºC. Nestas condições de escoamento, da solução e do meio filtrante, o processo foi considerado satisfatório com vazões transmembrana entre 10 L/(h.m2) e 120 L/(h.m2). / This work reports experimental results of the crossflow microfiltration of emulsion (whey of milk) applied in the microrganism retention of the coliform group. In the study of the separation process were used micro-porous tubes of -alumina (Al2O3) and commercial membranes of average size pores of 0,8 and 1,2m. The micro-porous tubes were sinterised with temperature between 1400 and 1450 ºC and after, were characterized by technique of porosimetry for mercury intrusion, verifing average size of pores between 0,3 and 0,5µm. After the sintering, the ceramic tubes were treated with a citrate of silver solution (bactericidal substance), and submitted to synthesis for removed the organic matters. The commercial membranes were also impregnated by this process. With the scanning eletronic microscopy made the characterization of the morfology and micro-porous structures composition. Experimental tests of the crossflow microfiltration process were performed with whey of milk, with objective to study the influence of fluid dynamics parameters (Reynolds number and flux transmembrane) and to analyse the bacteria retention in turbulent regime, having Re between 2700 and 32000, transmembrane pressure (enters 1 to 4bar) and transmembrane flux between 0,5 and 300 L/h.m2. The permeate was analysed by the 20ª. Edition of the Standard Methods for Examination of Water, and all the experiments followed standards of security to restrict the possibility of contamination of the permeated and the atmosphere. The physiology of the bacteria was controlled by parameters of pH and temperature, respectively keeped between 6 and 7,0 and of 25 - 30ºC ± 1 ºC. In the conditions of flow, of the solution and system flow, the retention was considerated satisfactory with transmembrane flux between 10 L/(h.m2) and 120L/(h.m2).
6

Computational Study Of Long Chain N-alkane Binary Mixture Adsorption In Silicalite Under Conditions Of High Loading

Ganesh, Hari S 12 1900 (has links) (PDF)
The study of adsorption of n-alkanes in zeolite pores represents both a fundamental problem in molecular thermodynamics and also a problem with substantial industrial importance. Until mid 19th century, adsorption was mainly used for purification processes such as removal of H2S and mercaptans from natural gas and organic matter from water. However, with the emergence of molecular sieves, especially zeolites, adsorption processes have become an attractive alter- native to distillation in large scale separation of mixtures that have low relative volatility into streams each enriched in one of the components. The pore di- ameters of molecular sieves are of the order of molecular diameters and hence selective adsorption can be achieved by both a difference in adsorbate-adsorbent interactions of various species and obstruction by the pore walls to some of the species in the mixture. The existing adsorption theories such as Henry’s law, Langmuir adsorption model and BET isotherm are incapable of predicting the adsorption isotherms of n-alkanes in zeolite pores. The reason is that in microporous adsorbents, the sorbate molecular mechanisms are influenced by geometrical constraints also. This limitation in the use of theory can be overcome by developing a molecular model and using computers to mimic the real system. This nature of simulation is called molecular simulations. With the development of advanced algorithms, improved force-field parameters and very high computational power of present day computers, molecular simulations have become an important tool in studying adsorption on micro-porous materials. Adsorption experiments of mixtures of long chain alkanes into silicalite under liquid phase conditions show selectivity inversion and azeotrope formation. These effects are due to the subtle interplay between the size of the adsorbed molecules and pore topology of the adsorbent. The underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for selective uptake of one of the components cannot be obtained from experiments but can be realized through simulations. Therefore, in this study, the selective uptake of lighter component during liquid phase adsorption of C14/C15 and C15/C16 n-alkane binary mixtures in the zeolite silicalite is understood through configurational bias grand canonical Monte Carlo (CB- GCMC) molecular simulation technique and a course-grained siting analysis. The simulations are conducted under conditions of low and high loading. The siting pattern of the adsorbates inside the zeolite pores is used to explain the selectivity as seen in experiments.
7

Enhanced Boiling Heat Transfer on a Dendritic and Micro-Porous Copper Structure

Furberg, Richard January 2011 (has links)
A novel surface structure comprising dendritically ordered nano-particles of copper was developed during the duration of this thesis research project. A high current density electrodeposition process, where hydrogen bubbles functioned as a dynamic mask for the materials deposition, was used as a basic fabrication method. A post processing annealing treatment was further developed to stabilize and enhance the mechanical stability of the structure. The structure was studied quite extensively in various pool boiling experiments in refrigerants; R134a and FC-72. Different parameters were investigated, such as; thickness of the porous layer, presence of vapor escape channels, annealed or non-annealed structure. Some of the tests were filmed with a high speed camera, from which visual observation were made as well as quantitative bubble data extracted. The overall heat transfer coefficient in R134a was enhanced by about an order of magnitude compared to a plain reference surface and bubble image data suggests that both single- and two-phase heat transfer mechanisms were important to the enhancement. A quantitative and semi-empirical boiling model was presented where the main two-phase heat transfer mechanism inside the porous structure was assumed to be; micro-layer evaporation formed by an oscillating vapor-liquid meniscus front with low resistance vapor transport through escape channels. Laminar liquid motion induced by the oscillating vapor front was suggested as the primary single-phase heat transfer mechanism. The structure was applied to a standard plate heat exchanger evaporator with varying hydraulic diameter in the refrigerant channel. Again, a 10 times improved heat transfer coefficient in the refrigerant channel was recorded, resulting in an improvement of the overall heat transfer coefficient with over 100%. A superposition model was used to evaluate the results and it was found that for the enhanced boiling structure, variations of the hydraulic diameter caused a change in the nucleate boiling mechanism, which accounted for the largest effect on the heat transfer performance. For the standard heat exchanger, it was mostly the convective boiling mechanism that was affected by the change in hydraulic diameter. The structure was also applied to the evaporator surface in a two-phase thermosyphon with R134a as working fluid. The nucleate boiling mechanism was found to be enhanced with about 4 times and high speed videos of the enhanced evaporator reveal an isolated bubble flow regime, similar to that of smooth channels with larger hydraulic diameters. The number and frequency of the produced bubbles were significantly higher for the enhanced surface compared to that of the plain evaporator. This enhanced turbulence and continuous boiling on the porous structure resulted in decreased oscillations in the thermosyphon for the entire range of heat fluxes. / QC 20111111
8

Microporous Membranes Derived using Crystallisation Induced Phase Separation in PVDF/PMMA (Polyvinylidene Fluoride/ Polymethyl Methacrylate) Blends in Presence of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes

Sharma, Maya January 2017 (has links) (PDF)
Segmental chain dynamics in polymer blends is a very important topic, not only from a fundamental point of view but also from technological applications. Because of the difficulties in the commercialization of new polymers, industries have turned increasingly towards blending of polymers to optimise their end use (mechanical, rheological) properties. The design of tailor-made materials would be enormously facilitated by the understanding of the blending phenomena at a molecular level. The key question to address is to understand the dynamics of each component of the blend modified by blending? The thesis has systematically studied the effect of multiwalled carbon nanotubes on the chain dynamics, demixing temperature, structural properties and evolution of morphology in a classical miscible polymer blend system (PVDF/PMMA). The thesis comprises of six chapters, Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter that outlines the fundamentals of polymer blends, crystallisation in polymer blends and the basics of dielectric spectroscopy. As one of the rationales of this work is to systematic study whether phase separated in these blends can be used as a tool to develop membrane for water purification. This chapter also gives an overview of the reported studies of ultrafiltration membrane fabrication, factors affecting membrane morphology and flux. In Chapter 2, the materials and methodology used to carry out experiments and the experimental procedures are discussed. Chapter 3 discusses the effect of concentration of PMMA and amine functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) on the crystallisation induced phase separation using FTIR, XRD, POM and shear rheology. Electron microscopy and selective etching confirmed the localisation of MWNTs in the PVDF phase of the blends. Blends with MWNTs facilitated in heterogeneous nucleation manifesting in an increase in crystallisation temperature. The crystallisation induced phase separation in PVDF/PMMA blends was observed to influence the interconnected network of MWNTs in the blends. Chapter 4 discuss the effect of concentration of PMMA and MWNTs on the miscibility and the segmental relaxations was probed in situ by DSC and dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (DRS). The dynamic heterogeneity in the blends as manifested by the presence of an extra relaxation at a higher frequency at or below the crystallisation induced phase separation temperature was also discussed. We found that PVDF/PMMA blend (PVDF ≥ 80 wt%) exhibits three distinct relaxations; αc corresponding to crystalline PVDF, αβ segmental relaxation of PMMA and αm of amorphous miscibility whereas all relaxations overlap and constitute a single broad relaxation in PVDF/PMMA blend (PVDF ≤ 70 wt%). This confirms that there is a certain composition width in this blend wherein three distinct relaxations can be traced. This could due to many reasons like the width of crystal-amorphous interphase in the crystal lamellae, crystal size and morphology is strongly contingent on the concentration of PMMA. Relaxations are not very distinct in presence of MWNTs due to defective spherulites that shift the relaxations towards a higher frequency. Chapter 5 has attempted to tune the microporous morphology of PVDF membranes using crystallisation induced phase separation in PVDF/PMMA blends. As PVDF/PMMA is a melt-miscible blend, the samples were allowed to crystallise and the amorphous PMMA phase, which isolates in the interlamellar or inter-spherulitic regions in the blends, was etched out to generate microporous structures. The pore sizes can be tuned by varying the PMMA concentration in the blends. We observed that 60/40 PVDF/PMMA blends showed larger pores as compared to 90/10 PVDF/PMMA blends. We further modified PVDF membranes by sputtering silver on the surface. The bacterial cell viability was distinctly suppressed (99 %) in silver sputtered membranes. The ICP analysis suggests that slow Ag+ ions release from the sputtered membrane surface assisted in developing antibacterial surface. Our findings open new avenues in designing water filtration membranes and also help in understanding the crystallisation kinetics for tuning pore size in membranes. Chapter 6 summarises the important results of this work. MWNTs act as hetero nucleating agent and specifically interact with PVDF thereby influences the dynamics of PVDF chains. MWNTs can also restrict the amorphous segmental mobility and can influence the intermolecular cooperativity and coupling. The crystallisation induced phase separation in various blends can result in various crystalline morphologies depending on the PVDF concentration. By selectively etching PMMA from the phase-separated blends, microporous morphology can be generated
9

A comparison of catalyst application techniques for membrane electrode assemblies in SO2 depolarized electrolysers / Dreyer H.M.E.

Dreyer, Herbert Morgan Evans January 2011 (has links)
Hydrogen production via the electrolysis of water has gained a lot of attention in the last couple of years. Research related to electrolysers is mostly aimed towards decreasing the noble–metal catalyst content. In this study the presently used catalyst application techniques were reviewed and critically examined to find commercially applicable and effective methods. Selected methods were then practically applied to determine their feasibility and to gain “know–how” related to the practical application of these techniques. The selected techniques were the hand paint, inkjet print, screen print and spray paint techniques. Meaningful comparisons were made between the methods in terms of parameters such as practicality, waste of catalyst and microstructure. The results point out that the hand paint and spray paint methods are feasible methods although there are improvements to be made. The hand paint method was improved by applying a carbon micro porous layer to the gas diffusion layer before the painting is carried out. The addition of the carbon layer reduced the soaking of the catalyst–containing ink through the gas diffusion layer. A method not initially investigated was identified an evaluated and showed promising results in lowering the mass of catalyst applied. This method comprised of sputtering a layer of catalyst material onto a prepared gas diffusion layer. It also came to light from the results that electrodes, and therefore membrane electrode assemblies, can be produced at a much lower cost than the commercial available membrane electrode assemblies. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.
10

A comparison of catalyst application techniques for membrane electrode assemblies in SO2 depolarized electrolysers / Dreyer H.M.E.

Dreyer, Herbert Morgan Evans January 2011 (has links)
Hydrogen production via the electrolysis of water has gained a lot of attention in the last couple of years. Research related to electrolysers is mostly aimed towards decreasing the noble–metal catalyst content. In this study the presently used catalyst application techniques were reviewed and critically examined to find commercially applicable and effective methods. Selected methods were then practically applied to determine their feasibility and to gain “know–how” related to the practical application of these techniques. The selected techniques were the hand paint, inkjet print, screen print and spray paint techniques. Meaningful comparisons were made between the methods in terms of parameters such as practicality, waste of catalyst and microstructure. The results point out that the hand paint and spray paint methods are feasible methods although there are improvements to be made. The hand paint method was improved by applying a carbon micro porous layer to the gas diffusion layer before the painting is carried out. The addition of the carbon layer reduced the soaking of the catalyst–containing ink through the gas diffusion layer. A method not initially investigated was identified an evaluated and showed promising results in lowering the mass of catalyst applied. This method comprised of sputtering a layer of catalyst material onto a prepared gas diffusion layer. It also came to light from the results that electrodes, and therefore membrane electrode assemblies, can be produced at a much lower cost than the commercial available membrane electrode assemblies. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

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