Water disinfection systems utilizing electrolytically generated copper:silver ions (200:20 to 400:40 ug/L) and low levels of free chlorine (0.1 to 0.4 mg/L) were evaluated at room (21-23°C) and elevated (39-40°C) temperatures in filtered well water (pH 7.3) for their efficacy in inactivating Legionella pneumophila (ATCC 33155). A contact time of 24 hr was necessary for copper:silver (400:40 ug/L) to achieve a 3 log₁₀ reduction in bacterial numbers at room temperature. As the copper:silver concentration increased to 800:80 ug/L (K = 7.50 x 10⁻³ log₁₀ reduction/min), the inactivation rate significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased. In water systems at room temperature with and without copper:silver (400:40 ug/L), the inactivation rates significantly increased as the free chlorine concentration increased from 0.1 mg/L (K = 0.397 log₁₀ reduction/min) to 0.4 mg/L (K = 1.047 log₁₀ reduction/min). All disinfection systems, regardless of temperature or free chlorine concentration, showed increased inactivation rates when 400:40 ug/L copper:silver was added; however, this trend was significant only at 0.4 mg/L free chlorine.

Antibiotic resistance profiles of fecal coliform isolated from unchlorinated and chlorinated secondary effluent were determined. Of 332 fecal coliforms isolated from chlorinated effluent a mean of 48% were multiply antibiotic resistant. In contrast, of 347 fecal coliforms isolated from unchlorinated effluent a mean of 29% were multiply antibiotic resistant. Resistance to ampicillin, cephalothin, and carbenicillin were significantly higher in the former than the latter. Randomly selected isolates survived and/or grew in sterile and unsterile effluent retaining resistance patterns for 40 days. Resistance factors were transferred in laboratory medium at frequencies from 0 to 1.2 x 10⁻² (number of recombinants/number of recipients) and in sterile neutralized tertiary effluent at frequencies from 0 to 1.0 x 10⁻⁴. Resuscitative techniques were necessary for optimal recovery of fecal coliforms from effluent using selective media. Antibiotic resistance patterns of fecal coliforms isolated from unchlorinated and chlorinated effluent was not associated with chlorine or heavy metal resistance. Multiply antibiotic resistant fecal coliforms from chlorinated effluent were significantly less sensitive to lytic phage than multiply antibiotic sensitive fecal coliforms from unchlorinated effluent (p < .05). Using group discriminate analysis of data, phage typing techniques were shown to be a potential tool for tracing fecal contamination of groundwater.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Leptospirillum ferriphilum is a moderately thermophilic, iron-oxidizing bacterium that was isolated from a continuous-flow biooxidation plant used for the recovery of gold from arsenopyrite ore concentrates. Over many years of continuous selection, L. ferriphilum and other bacteria associated with this environment developed resistance to high concentrations of arsenic. We investigated the arsenic resistance genes (ars) of Leptospirillum ferriphilum strain Fairview and compared these genes to the ars genes from other Leptospirilli. An arsenic resistance operon (ars operon) was isolated from a L. ferriphilum Fairview genebank. We discovered that this ars operon was situated in between divergently transcribed transposase (tnpA) and resolvase (tnpR) genes related to the Tn21 subfamily of transposons. Sequence analysis of this transposon ars operon indicated the presence of arsRCDAB genes and an additional CBS orf, located in between the arsA and arsB genes. The 8.5 kb L. ferriphilum transposon ars operon (TnLfArs) was shown to be present only in L. ferriphilum strain Fairview and none of the other Leptospirillum strains. The TnLfArs conferred resistance to arsenate and arsenite in an Escherichia coli ars mutant. We also showed that the TnLfArs is capable of transposition in Escherichia coli. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Leptospirillum ferriphilum, ‘n matig termofilies, yster-oksiderende bakterium, is een van `n konsortium bakterieë betrokke by die biologiese herwinning van goud uit arsenopiriet erts. Oor vele jare het die selektiewe druk, weens hoë arseen konsentrasies teenwoordig in die erts, veroorsaak dat L. ferriphilum en die ander bakteriee geassosieer met die omgewing, verhoogde vlakke van weerstandbiedendheid teen die metaal opgebou het. Die doel van die studie was om die aard van die aanpassing op die molukulere vlak vas te stel deur die gene wat in L. ferriphilum (Fairview ras) hiervoor verantwoordelik is te identifiseer en te vergelyk met die van ander Leptospirilli. `n Arseen weestandbiedendheids operon (ars operon) is met behulp van `n L. ferriphilum geen-bank geisoleer. DNA-volgorde bepaling het aangedui dat die operon arsRCDAB gene bevat, sowel as `n CBS orf, gelee tussen die arsA en arsB gene. Die hele operon is gelee tussen `n tnpR- (resolvase) en tnpA (transposase) gene wat in teenoorgestelde rigtings getranskribeer word. Hierdie gene behoort aan die Tn21 familie van transposons. Daar is gevind dat die 8.5 kb L. ferriphilum transposon wat die ars operon bevat (TnLfArs) slegs teenwoordig is in die Fairview ras van L. ferriphilum maar in geen van die ander Leptospirillum rasse nie. Die TnLfArs het weerstanbiedendheid verleen, teen beide arsenaat en arseniet, aan `n Escherichia coli arseen-sensitiewe mutant. Die vermoë van die transposon (TnLfArs) om transposisie te ondergaan is ook in E. coli bevestig.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this study the chromosomal arsenic resistance (ars) genes shown to be present in all Acidithiobacillus. caldus isolates were cloned and sequenced from At. caldus #6. Ten open reading frames (ORFs) were identified on a clone conferring arsenic resistance, with three homologs to arsenic genes, arsC (arsenate reductase), arsR (regulator) and arsB (arsenite export). This ars operon is divergent, with the arsRC and arsB genes transcribed in opposite directions. Analysis of the putative amino acid sequences of these arsRC and arsB genes revealed that they are the most closely related to the ars genes of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. These ars genes were functional when transformed into an Escherichia coli ars deletion mutant ACSH50Iq, and conferred increased levels of resistance to arsenate and arsenite. ArsC was required for resistance to arsenate, but not for resistance to arsenite. None of the other ORFs enhanced arsenic resistance in E. coli. A transposon located arsenic resistance system (TnAtcArs) has been described for highly arsenic resistant strains of the moderately thermophilic, sulfur-oxidizing, biomining bacterium At .caldus #6. In the latter study it was shown that TnAtcArs confers higher levels of resistance to arsenate and arsenite than the chromosomal operon. TnAtcArs was conjugated into a weakly ars resistant At. caldus strain (C-SH12) and resulted in greatly increased arsenite resistance. RT-PCR analysis revealed that arsR and arsC are co-transcribed. Despite ORF1 (cadmium inducible-like protein) and ORF5 (putative integrase for prophage CP-933R) not being involved in resistance to arsenic, ORF1 was co-transcribed with arsRC and ORF5 with arsB. Using arsR-lacZ and arsB-lacZ fusions it was shown that the chromosomal ArsR-like regulator of At. caldus acts as a repressor of the arsR and arsB promoter expression. Induction of gene expression took place when either arsenate or arsenite was added. The chromosomal located ArsR was also able to repress TnAtcArs, but the transposon-located ArsR was unable to regulate the chromosomal system. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie is die chromosomale arseen weerstandbiedendheidsgene (ars gene), teenwoordig in alle Acidithiobacillus caldus isolate, gekloon en die DNA volgorde daarvan vanaf At. caldus #6 bepaal. Tien oopleesrame (ORFs) is geïdentifiseer op ‘n kloon wat arseen weerstandbiedend is, met drie homoloog aan ars gene, nl. arsC (arsenaat reduktase), arsR (reguleerder) en arsB (membraan-geleë pomp wat arseniet uitpomp). Die ars operon is gerangskik met die arsRC en arsB gene wat in teenoorgestelde rigtings getranskribeer word. Analise van die afgeleide aminosuurvolgorde van dié ars gene het getoon hulle is naverwant aan die ars gene van Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. Die ars gene was funksioneel na transformasie na ‘n E. coli ars mutant (ACSH50Iq), en het ‘n hoër vlak van weerstand teen arsenaat en arseniet gebied. ArsC was nodig vir weerstand teen arsenaat, maar nie vir weerstand teen arseniet nie. Geen van die ander ORFs het arseen weerstandbiedendheid in E. coli bevorder nie. Voorheen is ‘n ars operon, geleë op ‘n transposon (TnAtcArs), in ‘n hoogs arseen-weerstandbiedende stam van die middelmatige termofiliese, swawel-oksiderende, bio-ontgunning (“biomining”) bakterie Acidithiobacillus caldus #6 beskryf. In laasgenoemde studie is gevind dat TnAtcArs hoër vlakke van weerstand bied teen arsenaat en arseniet as die chromosomale operon. TnAtcArs is na ‘n lae arseen-weerstandbiedende At. caldus stam (C-SH12) gekonjugeer. Die resultaat was ‘n groot verhoging in arseen weerstandbiedendheid. RT-PCR analise het onthul dat arsR en arsC saam getranskribeer word. Benewens die feit dat ORF1 (kadmium induseerbare protein) en ORF5 (afgeleide integrase vir profaag CP-933R) nie betrokke is in weerstand teen arseniet and arsenaat nie, is ORF1 saam met arsRC getranskribeer en ORF5 saam met arsB. Deur gebruik te maak van die fusie-gene arsR-lacZ en arsB-lacZ is bewys dat die chromosomale ArsR reguleerder van At. caldus as ‘n inhibeerder van die arsR en arsB promoter uitdrukking funksioneer. Indusering van geen uitdrukking vind plaas wanneer arseniet of arsenaat bygevoeg word. Die chromosomaal-geleë ArsR is ook in staat om TnAtcArs te inhibeer, terwyl die transposon geleë ArsR nie daartoe in staat is om die chromosomale ars sisteem te reguleer nie.