This thesis examines the mapping of eighteenth-century Scotland in relation to the British state’s imperatives to know the spaces of the nation. It examines the idea of the ‘military landscape’—that conjunction of forts, roads, and barracks—represented and constructed by the military engineers, surveyors, and draughtsmen of the Board of Ordnance between 1689 and 1815. In total, 940 maps constitute the Board of Ordnance ‘archive’ housed mainly in the National Library of Scotland, the British Library, the National Archives (Kew), and the Royal Library at Windsor. The study of the Board of Ordnance military maps of Scotland is considered in relation to the epistemological foundations of map making in the Enlightenment, particular focus being paid to the relations between government institutions and military cartography. The thesis considers how political and military power was embodied in the engineers’ maps and plans. It explores the extent to which the Scottish landscape—especially the Highlands—was an unknown territory demanding intellectual and material civilisation in cartographic form. In its main chapters on forts, movement, and battles, the thesis is organised to reflect the purpose behind the creation of military maps. It includes representations of military activities that consistently had recourse to mapping—fortifying, intelligence, reconnaissance, marching, encamping, and battle—and explains why military maps were conceived thus and how they were used. Fortification cartography dominates the representation of Scottish military landscapes: 73% of the archive constitutes maps, plans, sections, and views of forts, barracks, and coastal batteries; 22% maps associated with military movement; and 5% battle maps. By examining the different genres of military mapping, the thesis offers an evaluation of the Board’s endeavours to rationalise and to codify military cartography in order to bring it in line with wider European practices. This review of the nature and extent of military mapping of eighteenth-century Scotland reveals the practice to be a result of institutional imperatives to assert territorial control rather than simply a cartographic enterprise. In (re)constructing the military landscape, the thesis extends current knowledge of military mapping in eighteenth-century Scotland and provides for the first time a substantive examination of the Board of Ordnance as an agency of state and cartographic authority.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The primary objective of the South African National Defence force is the protection of its citizens against external threats. The nature of the work, especially in operational situations, very often causes members of the SANDF to work in remote and unknown territory. The SANDF is composed of different units such as the army, air force and navy. All of these units typically control a specific aspect of the environment, especially in operational situations, and is very often also geographically spread over a large area. The battle commander would typically be in charge of all these units and must direct and control them efficiently towards achieving their assigned mission. In order to be an effective battle commander, the commander must thus be able to understand the terrain that his/her units are operating in, and maps are often the only information to base such understanding on. Map use is thus a critical success factor in effective battle command, and also for every member of the units navigating the often unknown terrain. The aim of the study is to conduct an investigation into the status quo of map use proficiency in the military, and specifically the South African National Army. The investigation comprises the following: • To conducting a detailed task analysis into map use in a military context, in order to establish specific map use functions and related skills regarded as critical in the military context. • The development of a proficiency test, taking the form of a questionnaire, based on the skills identified in the task analysis. Comparing the results of the questionnaire with map use skills identified in the task analysis, to determine the level of map use proficiency in military context. The secondary aims of the study comprise the following: • To investigate the level of map use training and determine if a need exists in term of additional map use training in the military, based on subjective opinions. • To investigate the level of computer literacy and the need for formal computer training in the military context. The key conclusions of the study are the following: • A gap between optimal and actual performance has been identified in terms of map use in the military context. • This gap can largely be attributed to insufficient structures and processes within the military context to facilitate effective map use. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die primêre doel van die Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Weermag is om die burgers van die land te beskerm teen eksterne gevare. Die aard van die werk veroorsaak dat soldate, tydens operasionele toestande, dikwels na onbekende en vreemde areas verplaas ten einde bogenoemde primêre doel te bereik. Die weermag bestaan tipies uit verskillende eenhede, wat elk gefokus is op die verrigting van spesifieke funksies, en dikwels geografies wyd versprei is. In gesamentlike operasies, is die operasie bevelvoerder tipies in beheer van die verskillende eenhede en moet hy toesien dat hul bewegings gekoordineer is ter bereiking van hul doel. Die operasie bevelvoerder, ten einde die doelwit effektief te bereik, moet in staat wees om die terrein waar die verskillende eenhede beweeg te ontleed, en effektief tot doelbereiking kan benut. Kaarte is een van die primêre bronne van inligting, ten einde die terrein te ontleed om dit sodoende tot voordeel te kan gebruik. Effektiewe gebruik van kaarte is dus 'n kritieke faktor wat bydra tot die sukses van die operasie bevelvoerder, asook vir feitlik elke lid binne die verskillende eenhede wat deur dikwels onbekende terrein moet navigeer. Die doelwitte van die studie is om 'n ondersoek in te stel na die status quo met betrekking tot kaart-gebruiksvaardigheid in die Suid Afrikaanse Nasionale Weermag. Die studie behels die volgende: • 'n Omvattende taak-analise ten opsigte van die gebruik van kaarte in die militêre konteks, om sodoende spesifieke funksies en verwante vaardighede te identifiseer wat as kritiek vir die militêr beskou word. • Om 'n vaardigheidstoets in 'n vraelys te inkorporeer, gebaseer op bogenoemde geïdentifiseerde kaart-gebruiksvaardighede. • Om die resultate van die vaardigheids-toets te vergelyk met dié geïdentifiseer in die taak-analise, om sodoende die vlak van kaartgebruiksvaardighede te bepaal in die militêre konteks. Die sekondêre doelwitte behels die volgende: • 'n Ondersoek na die vlak van kaart-gebruiksopleiding en om te bepaal of 'n behoefte bestaan na verdere kaart-gebruiksopleiding, gebaseer op subjektiewe opinies. • 'n Ondersoek na die vlak van rekenaargeletterdheid, en die behoefte aan rekenaar-opleiding. Die afleidings wat uit die studie gemaak kan word is die volgende: • daar bestaan 'n prestasie-gaping tussen optimale and werklike prestasie met betrekking tot die gebruik van kaarte in die militêre konteks, en • hierdie gaping kan grootliks toegeskryf word aan onvoldoende strukture binne die miliêre konteks, wat nie kaart-gebruiksvaardighede fasiliteer nie.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The primary objective of the South African National Defence force is the protection of its citizens against external threats. The nature of the work, especially in operational situations, very often causes members of the SANDF to work in remote and unknown territory. The SANDF is composed of different units such as the army, air force and navy. All of these units typically control a specific aspect of the environment, especially in operational situations, and is very often also geographically spread over a large area. The battle commander would typically be in charge of all these units and must direct and control them efficiently towards achieving their assigned mission. In order to be an effective battle commander, the commander must thus be able to understand the terrain that his/her units are operating in, and maps are often the only information to base such understanding on. Map use is thus a critical success factor in effective battle command, and also for every member of the units navigating the often unknown terrain. The aim of the study is to conduct an investigation into the status quo of map use proficiency in the military, and specifically the South African National Army. The investigation comprises the following: • To conducting a detailed task analysis into map use in a military context, in order to establish specific map use functions and related skills regarded as critical in the military context. • The development of a proficiency test, taking the form of a questionnaire, based on the skills identified in the task analysis. Comparing the results of the questionnaire with map use skills identified in the task analysis, to determine the level of map use proficiency in military context. The secondary aims of the study comprise the following: • To investigate the level of map use training and determine if a need exists in term of additional map use training in the military, based on subjective opinions. • To investigate the level of computer literacy and the need for formal computer training in the military context. The key conclusions of the study are the following: • A gap between optimal and actual performance has been identified in terms of map use in the military context. • This gap can largely be attributed to insufficient structures and processes within the military context to facilitate effective map use. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die primêre doel van die Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Weermag is om die burgers van die land te beskerm teen eksterne gevare. Die aard van die werk veroorsaak dat soldate, tydens operasionele toestande, dikwels na onbekende en vreemde areas verplaas ten einde bogenoemde primêre doel te bereik. Die weermag bestaan tipies uit verskillende eenhede, wat elk gefokus is op die verrigting van spesifieke funksies, en dikwels geografies wyd versprei is. In gesamentlike operasies, is die operasie bevelvoerder tipies in beheer van die verskillende eenhede en moet hy toesien dat hul bewegings gekoordineer is ter bereiking van hul doel. Die operasie bevelvoerder, ten einde die doelwit effektief te bereik, moet in staat wees om die terrein waar die verskillende eenhede beweeg te ontleed, en effektief tot doelbereiking kan benut. Kaarte is een van die primêre bronne van inligting, ten einde die terrein te ontleed om dit sodoende tot voordeel te kan gebruik. Effektiewe gebruik van kaarte is dus 'n kritieke faktor wat bydra tot die sukses van die operasie bevelvoerder, asook vir feitlik elke lid binne die verskillende eenhede wat deur dikwels onbekende terrein moet navigeer. Die doelwitte van die studie is om 'n ondersoek in te stel na die status quo met betrekking tot kaart-gebruiksvaardigheid in die Suid Afrikaanse Nasionale Weermag. Die studie behels die volgende: • 'n Omvattende taak-analise ten opsigte van die gebruik van kaarte in die militêre konteks, om sodoende spesifieke funksies en verwante vaardighede te identifiseer wat as kritiek vir die militêr beskou word. • Om 'n vaardigheidstoets in 'n vraelys te inkorporeer, gebaseer op bogenoemde geïdentifiseerde kaart-gebruiksvaardighede. • Om die resultate van die vaardigheids-toets te vergelyk met dié geïdentifiseer in die taak-analise, om sodoende die vlak van kaartgebruiksvaardighede te bepaal in die militêre konteks. Die sekondêre doelwitte behels die volgende: • 'n Ondersoek na die vlak van kaart-gebruiksopleiding en om te bepaal of 'n behoefte bestaan na verdere kaart-gebruiksopleiding, gebaseer op subjektiewe opinies. • 'n Ondersoek na die vlak van rekenaargeletterdheid, en die behoefte aan rekenaar-opleiding. Die afleidings wat uit die studie gemaak kan word is die volgende: • daar bestaan 'n prestasie-gaping tussen optimale and werklike prestasie met betrekking tot die gebruik van kaarte in die militêre konteks, en • hierdie gaping kan grootliks toegeskryf word aan onvoldoende strukture binne die miliêre konteks, wat nie kaart-gebruiksvaardighede fasiliteer nie.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Map reading forms an integral part of every soldier's training. Although all troops are exposed to map reading during basic training, they thereafter do not frequently work with maps on a daily basis, but are still required to apply this knowledge during field exercises or combat situations. Various forms of training are available. Computer Based Training (CBT) is a technique that may contribute to the improved acquisition and retention of knowledge when the subject matter requires of students to visualise concepts, as CBT engages multiple senses. CBT incorporates principles from the Component Display Theory and Constructivism, which suggest that CBT might result in superior map reading competencies when used as an alternative to conventional, classroom based, map reading instruction. .The objective of this study was firstly to determine whether CBT, compared to conventional classroom instruction, enhances the acquisition of knowledge when teaching users how to read a two-dimensional (2D) map. In addition, the study had as its objective to determine whether CBT leads to improved retention of 2D map reading knowledge over a one month period when compared to conventional instruction. Finally the study aimed to determine the factors that influence learning when using CBT as the training medium. A basic randomised, between subjects research design, was used to test the hypotheses that eBT would result in the improved acquisition and retention of 2D map reading competencies. The control group consisted of 30 students and the experimental CBT group of 29 students. All subjects were personnel from the School of Armour of the South African National Defence Force. With regards to map training, the majority of the students had exposure to Geography up to grade 12 or further training. A new training programmewas designed. The programmewas developed in two equivalent formats, one appropriate for conventional classroom instruction (control group), and a eBT format for the experimental group. Each student received two manuals. One was a self-study manual that had to be completed before commencing with the course, and the other was received on the first day of the course. Both the trainers also received a manual that contained all the correct answers to the map reading problems forming part of the programme. The eBT programme was designed on paper with the help of a template for the storyboard. A lesson was designed for each day of the course, but students could review any lesson previously studied. Before the students started with lesson 1, they had to complete a test on the computer to determine the extent to which they have acquired the information in the self-study manual. After passing the test the students could select lesson 1. A mind-map was designed for each lesson to help students orientate themselves. For both groups the information studied was placed in the context of "Operation Night Owl", an interactive practical mission. The eBT group had the computer as a guide, providing textured maps and possible answers. Three tests were used to evaluate the students and to gather data regarding their performance. The students were not informed about these tests as the researcher wanted to measure natural acquisition and retention, and not the amount of time that they had studied. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that the two groups did not differ statistically significantly (p>,05) in their initial degree of map reading knowledge. The average test percentage increased from the pre-test to the first post-test (knowledge acquisition), indicating that the class group increased by 15,2 % and the eBT group by 19 %. Hypothesis 1 states that eBT in comparison to traditional instruction enhances the acquisition of map reading knowledge when teaching users how to read a 2D map. The difference between the class and eBT means for post-test 1 (knowledge acquisition) was, however, statistically insignificant (p>,05). A comparison of the means of the post-test 2 (retention) results of the class and eBT groups clearly indicates that the performance levels retained one month after training, also do not differ statistically significantly (p>,05). The study therefore also fails to corroborate the hypothesis that eBT would result in the greater retention of map reading knowledge when compared to conventional classroom instruction. Based on the results found when eBT results were compared with the traditional classroom technique, it may be advisable to combine classroom teaching with eBT. During the completion of the mission segment of the course, students tended to form natural groups to complete the questions. As working together may result in better understanding of new information (peers learn from each other), it is therefore recommended that the eBT map-reading course be combined with more discussion groups. In conclusion, the results do not suggest that eBT is a superior training technique for the teaching of map reading competencies. Numerous literature sources however do indicate that eBT can contribute significantly to the learning experience, making it still plausible that eBT could indeed, upon further refinement of the programme, contribute to teaching of map reading competencies. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kaartlees vorm 'n integrale deel van elke soldaat se opleiding. Alhoewel elke soldaat blootgestel word aan kaartlees tydens basiese opleiding, word daar nie op 'n daaglikse basis daarmee gewerk nie. Dit blyegter nodig om kaartlees tydens veld-oefeninge en aanvalsituasies toe te pas. Verskillende vorme van opleiding is beskikbaar t.o.v. die aanleer van kaartleestegnieke. Rekenaargebaseerde Dnderrig (RGD) is 'n tegniek wat veelvoudige gewaarwordinge insluit, en dus 'n bydrae tot beter leer en retensie van kennis kan lewer, wanneer dit van die student verwag word om konsepte te visualiseer. RGD sluit eienskappe van Komponent-tentoonstellingsteorie en Konstruktiwiteitsteorie in wat tot verbeterde kaartlees bevoegdheid mag lei indien dit as 'n alternatief tot die konvensionele klaskamer-gebaseerde kaartlees gebruik word. Die doel van die studie was eerstens om vas te stelof RGD, in vergelyking met die konvensionele klaskamermetode, 'n groter bydra lewer in die leer en retensie van kennis wanneer studente geleer word om 'n 2-dimensionele (2D)-kaart te lees. Tweedens stel die studie dit ten doelom vas te stelof RGD, in vergelyking met die konvensionele metode, tot verbeterde retensie van 2D-kaartlees kennis oor 'n een-maand tydperk lei. Laastens beoog hierdie studie om vas te stel watter faktore leer beïnvloed wanneer RGD as 'n opleidingsmedium gebruik word. 'n Basiese, ewekansige, tussen-groep navorsingsontwerp is gebruik om die hipotese dat RGD sal lei tot die verbeterde leer en retensie van 2D-kaartleesbevoegdhede, te toets. Die kontrolegroep het bestaan uit 30 studente en die eksperimentele RGD-groep uit 29 studente. Die steekproef was troepe van die Pantserskool van die Suid Afrikaanse Weermag. Die meerderheid van die steekproef het blootstelling aan Aardrykskunde tot graad 12 of verder gehad. 'n Nuwe opleidingsprogram is ontwerp. Die handleidings is ontwerp in 'n formaat geskik vir konvensionele klaskamer instruksie (kontrole groep) so wel as 'n formaat geskik vir RGO (eksperimentele groep). Elke student het twee handleidings ontvang. Die een was 'n self-studiehandleiding wat voor die aanvang van die kursus voltooi moes word, en die ander een is op die eerste dag van die kursus ontvang. Albei die instrukteurs het ook 'n handleiding ontvang wat die korrekte antwoorde rakende die kaartleesprobleme bespreek in die program bevat het. Die RGO program is op papier ontwerp met die hulp van 'n skermplaat. 'n Les is uitgewerk vir elke dag van die kursus, maar studente kon enige van die vorige behandelde lesse hersien. Voordat die studente met les 1 kon begin moes elkeen eers 'n toets op die rekenaar voltooi om te bepaal hoeveel inligting in die self-studie handleiding bemeester is. Sodra die toets geslaag is kon die student les 1 selekteer 'n Skematiese voorstelling is vir elke les ontwerp om die studente te help om hulleself te oriënteer. Die inligting wat deur beide groepe bestudeer is, is in die konteks van "Operasie Naguil", 'n interaktiewe praktiese opdrag, geplaas. Die RGO groep het 'n rekenaar as 'n riglyn gehad wat getekstureerde kaarte en moontlike antwoorde verskaf het. Drie toetse is gebruik om die studente mee te evalueer en data aangaande hulle vordering te verky. Die studente is nie ingelig oor die toetse nie aangesien die navorser hulle natuurlike leer en retensie van kennis wou toets en nie kennis verkry a.g.v. tyd spandeer aan studie nie. Die variansie-ontleding (ANOVA) het aangedui dat die twee groepe se kaartleeskennis aanvanklik nie statisties beduidend (p>,05) verskil het nie. Die gemiddelde toetspersentasie vanaf die vooraf-toets tot die eerste na-toets (leer) het getoon dat die klasgroep met 15,2% en die RGO groep met 19 % verbeter het. Die eerste hipotese het getoets of RGD tot In vebetering in leer en retensie sal lei teenoor traditionele klasrnetodes. Die verskil tussen die klas en RGD gemiddeld vir na-toets 1 (leer) was statisties onbeduidend (p>,05). 'n Vergelyking van die gemiddelds van die tweede na-toets (retensie) het ook nie 'n statisties beduidende verskil getoon nie (p>,05). Die studie slaag dus nie daarin om te bewys dat RGO tot beter retensie van kaartleeskennis in teenstelling met konvensionele klasonderrig lei nie. Die resultate suggereer dat dit raadsaam mag wees om klasonderrig te kombineer met RGO. Tydens die voltooiing van die missies het die studente 'n neiging getoon om vanself groepe te vorm om die vrae te voltooi. As nuwe inligting beter verstaan word deur in groepe saam te werk (groeplede leer by mekaar), kan dit dus aanbeveel word dat die RGD kaartleeskursus gekombineer word met meer besprekingsgroepe. Ten slotte word daar nie bevind dat RGO In beter opleidingstegniek vir die onderrig van kaartleestegniek is nie. Verskeie bronne dui wel daarop dat RGO 'n betekenisvolle bydrae tot die leerondervinding kan lewer. Dus, met verdere verbetering van die program, sou RGD wel moontlik kon bydra tot die onderrig van kaartlees-bevoegdhede.