As mitocôndrias são os principais locais de geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO), que são produzidos como subprodutos da cadeia de transporte de elétrons. O ferro livre e as ERO podem se envolver em processos potencialmente nocivos, sendo que a desregulação do metabolismo do ferro nessa organela tem sido associada a várias doenças, como a Ataxia de Friedreich (FA). O transporte seletivo de quelantes de ferro a esta organela é proposto como um meio de melhorar sintomas de FA. A desferrioxamina (DFO) é um sideróforo bacteriano com grande afinidade ao ferro, mas baixa penetração celular. Já os peptídeos altamente catiônicos TAT49-57 (Arg-Lys-Lys-Arg-Arg-Gln-Arg-Arg-Arg), 1A (Fx-Arg-Fx-Lys-Fx-Arg-Fx -Lys), SS02 (Dmt-(D)-Arg-Phe-Lys) e SS20 (Phe-(D)-Arg-Phe-Lys) são conhecidos por permear as membranas citossólicas e mitocondriais. Nós preparamos conjugados de DFO com peptídeos que penetram as mitocôndrias e estudamos suas características de ligação ao ferro in vitro. Eles foram preparados e conjugados em fase sólida com DFO (produzindo quatro mtDFO), que em seguida foram purificados e caracterizados por meio de LC/MS e análise de aminoácidos. Os mtDFO de alta pureza exibiram capacidade de ligação de ferro idêntica à do quelante livre DFO. Os mtDFO também foram capazes de suprimir a oxidação catalisada pelo sistema ferro-ascorbato. A fim de avaliar a localização intracelular dos mtDFO, estes foram marcados com TAMRA (mtDFO-TAMRA). Frente a uma linhagem de carcinoma de ovario, os mtDFO foram em geral pouco tóxicos e altamente localizados nas mitocôndrias. Não foram observados níveis expressivos de danos a DNA, indução de apoptose, geração de ERO na mitocôndria, arraste de ciclo celular ou de apoptose. Resultados preliminares da aplicação dos mtDFO a cardiomiócitos murínicos com baixo nível de frataxina (modelo de FA) indicam um restabelecimento de aproximadamente 60% na morfologia mitocondrial, o que pode ser interpretado como uma melhora nas funções dessa organela. Estes resultados indicam que os mtDFO produzidos podem ser uma parte importante no arsenal terapêutico para FA. / Mitochondria are the main site for the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as sub products of electron transport chain. Free iron and ROS may interact to generate potentially harmful species, and iron homeostasis in this organelle has been linked to several diseases, such as Friedreich Ataxia (FA). Selective targeting of iron chelators to mitochondria has been proposed as a means of alleviating FA symptoms. Desferrioxamine (DFO) is a bacterial siderophore with high affinity for iron, however low cell penetration. Highly charged peptides TAT49-57 Arg-Lys-Lys-Arg-Arg-Gln-Arg-Arg-Arg), 1A (Fx-Arg-Fx-Lys-Fx-Arg-Fx -Lys), SS02 (Dmt-(D)-Arg-Phe-Lys) and SS20 (Phe-(D)-Arg-Phe-Lys) are known as both cell- and mitochondria-permeant. We prepared conjugates of DFO with mitochondria-penetrating peptides and studied their iron binding characteristics in vitro. They were prepared in solid phase and conjugated to DFO (generating four mtDFO), which were then purified and characterized by LC/MS and Amino acid analysis. MtDFO exhibited iron binding ability identical to free DFO. The mtDFO of high purity were also able to quench the oxidation catalyzed by the iron-ascorbate system. Cell localization studies were performed by tagging mtDFO with TAMRA. In A2780 cells, mtDFO displayed in general low toxicity and high levels of mitochondrial location. No expressive levels of DNA damage, apoptosis, mitochondrial ERO generation or cell cycle arresting were observed. Preliminary results of the application of mtDFO on mouse cardiomiocytes with low levels of frataxin (animal model of FA) indicate a recovery of ca. 60% of mitochondrial morphology. This is interpreted as an improvement of the functions of the organelle. These results indicate that mtDFO may be important allies in the therapy of FA.

As mitocôndrias são os principais locais de geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO), que são produzidos como subprodutos da cadeia de transporte de elétrons. O ferro livre e as ERO podem se envolver em processos potencialmente nocivos, sendo que a desregulação do metabolismo do ferro nessa organela tem sido associada a várias doenças, como a Ataxia de Friedreich (FA). O transporte seletivo de quelantes de ferro a esta organela é proposto como um meio de melhorar sintomas de FA. A desferrioxamina (DFO) é um sideróforo bacteriano com grande afinidade ao ferro, mas baixa penetração celular. Já os peptídeos altamente catiônicos TAT49-57 (Arg-Lys-Lys-Arg-Arg-Gln-Arg-Arg-Arg), 1A (Fx-Arg-Fx-Lys-Fx-Arg-Fx -Lys), SS02 (Dmt-(D)-Arg-Phe-Lys) e SS20 (Phe-(D)-Arg-Phe-Lys) são conhecidos por permear as membranas citossólicas e mitocondriais. Nós preparamos conjugados de DFO com peptídeos que penetram as mitocôndrias e estudamos suas características de ligação ao ferro in vitro. Eles foram preparados e conjugados em fase sólida com DFO (produzindo quatro mtDFO), que em seguida foram purificados e caracterizados por meio de LC/MS e análise de aminoácidos. Os mtDFO de alta pureza exibiram capacidade de ligação de ferro idêntica à do quelante livre DFO. Os mtDFO também foram capazes de suprimir a oxidação catalisada pelo sistema ferro-ascorbato. A fim de avaliar a localização intracelular dos mtDFO, estes foram marcados com TAMRA (mtDFO-TAMRA). Frente a uma linhagem de carcinoma de ovario, os mtDFO foram em geral pouco tóxicos e altamente localizados nas mitocôndrias. Não foram observados níveis expressivos de danos a DNA, indução de apoptose, geração de ERO na mitocôndria, arraste de ciclo celular ou de apoptose. Resultados preliminares da aplicação dos mtDFO a cardiomiócitos murínicos com baixo nível de frataxina (modelo de FA) indicam um restabelecimento de aproximadamente 60% na morfologia mitocondrial, o que pode ser interpretado como uma melhora nas funções dessa organela. Estes resultados indicam que os mtDFO produzidos podem ser uma parte importante no arsenal terapêutico para FA. / Mitochondria are the main site for the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as sub products of electron transport chain. Free iron and ROS may interact to generate potentially harmful species, and iron homeostasis in this organelle has been linked to several diseases, such as Friedreich Ataxia (FA). Selective targeting of iron chelators to mitochondria has been proposed as a means of alleviating FA symptoms. Desferrioxamine (DFO) is a bacterial siderophore with high affinity for iron, however low cell penetration. Highly charged peptides TAT49-57 Arg-Lys-Lys-Arg-Arg-Gln-Arg-Arg-Arg), 1A (Fx-Arg-Fx-Lys-Fx-Arg-Fx -Lys), SS02 (Dmt-(D)-Arg-Phe-Lys) and SS20 (Phe-(D)-Arg-Phe-Lys) are known as both cell- and mitochondria-permeant. We prepared conjugates of DFO with mitochondria-penetrating peptides and studied their iron binding characteristics in vitro. They were prepared in solid phase and conjugated to DFO (generating four mtDFO), which were then purified and characterized by LC/MS and Amino acid analysis. MtDFO exhibited iron binding ability identical to free DFO. The mtDFO of high purity were also able to quench the oxidation catalyzed by the iron-ascorbate system. Cell localization studies were performed by tagging mtDFO with TAMRA. In A2780 cells, mtDFO displayed in general low toxicity and high levels of mitochondrial location. No expressive levels of DNA damage, apoptosis, mitochondrial ERO generation or cell cycle arresting were observed. Preliminary results of the application of mtDFO on mouse cardiomiocytes with low levels of frataxin (animal model of FA) indicate a recovery of ca. 60% of mitochondrial morphology. This is interpreted as an improvement of the functions of the organelle. These results indicate that mtDFO may be important allies in the therapy of FA.

Cancer remains a global pandemic and is rapidly overtaking other diseases as the no.1 killer in developing nations. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been advanced as a minimally invasive cancer therapy. In addition, the emergence of harmful microbes with increasing resistance to drugs has prompted the employment of photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT) as a promising alternative to combat antibiotic resistance. In PDT and PACT, a photosensitizer (dye/drug) upon activation by light transfers energy to molecular oxygen producing singlet oxygen which kills cells. There is increased attention and research into more selective and non-aggregated photosensitizers that will better PDT in treating cancer. This research work is focused on design and synthesis of non-aggregated asymmetric phthalocyanines (dyes) tagged with mitochondrial targeting vehicles to maximize selectivity and photo-killing of tumor cells. Chapter 1 presents a brief review of the current status of PDT and treatment of cancer. The three components of PDT namely, light, oxygen and the photosensitizer, are briefly discussed giving a concise overview of the development of each of them in bettering PDT as an alternative to cancer therapy. Chapter 2 outlines the design, synthesis and characterization of two non-aggregated symmetric ZnPc isomers that have improved water solubility due to incorporation of triethylene glycol groups. The extension of the max absorption to near-IR via non-peripheral substitution on the Pc macrocycle is reported, while comparing the photophysical characteristics of both isomers. Chapter 3 details the improved selectivity of photosensitizers by conjugating ZnPcs to rhodamine B, a delocalized lipophilic cation, which targets the mitochondria of the cell. This conjugation achieved 70% more cell death suggesting that incorporation of rhodamine improved cellular uptake and localization of the photosensitizers which is crucial. Chapters 4 and 5 cover the design, synthesis, characterization, and photodynamic therapy evaluation of ZnPc and phosphorous phthalocyanines. Introduction of phosphorous as an electron deficient central atom promoted a 42 nm bathochromic shift relative to the corresponding ZnPc isomer. Additionally, the effect of peripheral and non-peripheral substitution on phototoxicity of these new compounds is studied and reported. Chapter 5 also gives concluding remarks, and future directions of this work.

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Pancreatic cancer is one of the deadliest types of malignant diseases. Asymptomatic early tumour stages, tumour heterogeneity, cancer cell plasticity and unusually dense pancreatic stroma are responsible for the poor prognosis attributed to late diagnosis and therapy resistance. Therefore, targeting of a pivotal element common for any cell type within the tumour, e.g. mitochondria, may bring significant improvement. In this work, we demonstrate mitochondrial targeting of metformin, an anti-diabetic drug associated with reduced risk of developing pancreatic cancer, substantially increases accumulation of the compound in mitochondria. In consequence, we show that mitochondrially targeted metformin, MitoMet, eliminates pancreatic cancer cells in more than 1000-fold lower concentration than used for its parental compound. Following interaction with respiratory complex I (CI), MitoMet inhibits mitochondrial respiration, activates AMP-activated protein kinase pathway and causes depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential in pancreatic cancer cells. Moreover, MitoMet induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, which is partially mediated via increased level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and suppresses pancreatic tumour growth in vivo. Interestingly, SMAD4-deficient pancreatic cancer cells manifest...

Cancer is a leading cause of death in the western world and is increasing in frequency world-wide. Although diagnosis, treatment and therapeutic approaches to cancer have improved, many types of cancer are still lethal due to the lack of radical treatment. One of the fatal neoplastic disease types with poor prognosis is represented by malignant mesothelioma (MM). MM is characterised by very high mortality rate and limited therapeutic options. The etiology of the disease is mainly associated with exposure to asbestos fibres. The incidence of MM is increasing in many countries. The search for novel molecular targets, anti-cancer strategies and drugs, which would considerably improve the treatment is of great importance. Certain new drugs, especially those with specific molecular targets, show high selectivity in their action to cancer cells, and have considerably increased the cure rate in some types of cancer. Mitochondria have recently emerged as a very promising target for anti-cancer agents. A group of compounds with anti-cancer activity that induce apoptosis by way of mitochondrial destabilisation, termed 'mitocans', have been a recent focus of research. Several mitocans have been shown to selectively induce apoptosis in cancer cells and suppress the growth of many types of carcinomas in...