Women’s subordination in marital relations is a problematic issue causing socio-economic imbalance between spouses. These issues are found within the system of Uganda’s patriarchal society. Mobile money (m-money) is a service that entered the Ugandan market in 2009 that allows transferring and withdrawing money and paying bills with your cellphone without being connected to a formal bank. Earlier research shows positive impact of m-money use for women’s entrepreneurship in a male-privileged society. These realities render interest towards investigating how m-money effects women and if it has any impact on their self esteem in their marital relation. The study aims to understand the effect of women’s use of m-money in a marital relation. The field study was carried out in Mbarara using interviews and observations to approach the issue. Ugandan women have a lower position within the marital relation as well as in society in general since it is the man who heads of the family. The study reveals an existing lack of trust between spouses, resulting in the exclusion of one another from their individual finances. This lack of trust becomes an impediment of mutual support within the marriage. Furthermore the study shows that women from a higher strata use m-money as a security line of income and gives leeway to meet both traditional expectations such as care taking of children and modern expectations to be employed within the formal sector. The lower strata of women who use m-money tend to protect the money from their husbands who have different priorities than their wives. Through m-money women are given a tool allowing them to circumvent economic confrontations between the spouses and the societal hierarchal structures. The economic security creates a reality where women are less vulnerable because of their independence. The gained independence can however be deemed as a less bad alternative to dependence as it gives them a stronger foundation to manage the combination of the above-mentioned traditional and modern expectations within society.

This thesis examines the regulation of 'mobile money'. This is an electronic payment and storage service provided by phone companies ('mobile money firms' or 'MM firms'). The first mobile money service, M-Pesa, was launched in Kenya in 2007. Since then, mobile money has spread rapidly throughout the developing world, particularly across Africa. A novel feature of mobile money is its ability to serve large numbers of people who do not have bank accounts, commonly labelled 'the unbanked'. The thesis offers a framework, based on a functional approach, to analyse the key regulatory and policy issues that arise when customers’ funds are stored and transferred within mobile money platforms. The objectives of this framework are drawn from traditional financial regulation, such as financial stability and consumer protection, and 'financial inclusion', which involves connecting the unbanked to formal, electronic payment and storage functions. The thesis makes three main claims. First, mobile money operates as a shadow retail deposit system. Mobile money is 'shadow' because a customer contracts with a non-banking firm. It is 'retail' because the system meets the payment needs of individuals for ordinary transactions. And the service is a 'deposit' system because a mobile money account provides payment and storage functions which are functionally equivalent to a bank deposit. Second, mobile money provides these payment and storage functions, functionally equivalent to a bank deposit, through a different legal structure to that used by a bank to provide deposit account services. This structure, which is established through private ordering, comprises a set of mechanisms by which the MM firm (the 'agent' in the service) and its associates credibly commit to safeguard the funds of the mobile money customers (the 'principals') for the purposes of providing payment and storage functions. Collectively, these commitments require the MM firm to maintain a 1:1 relationship between cash received from customers, which is stored within the system as highly liquid assets, and 'e-money' which customers use in the mobile money service. As a result, mobile money customers face primarily operational risks, usually without the credit and liquidity risks associated with banking. Third, public ordering can increase the efficiency of MM firms' commitments in addressing risks in mobile money platforms through adopting an 'active' approach to regulation. In this approach, the policymaker monitors a greater range of risks and more closely than what might be expected in other comparable principal-agent relationships, such as retail investors and financial intermediaries, and depositors and banks. This approach is appropriate because unbanked customers are likely to face significant information asymmetries with MM firms and coordination problems amongst themselves. This means they are unlikely to effectively monitor a range of risks to the service caused by the MM firm and its associates.

Includes bibliographical references / The turn of the millennium witnessed the uptake and proliferation of mobile technology in developing regions. This occurrence has provided a medium for mobile telecommunication vendors within the region to create and offer services that are now accessible across socio-economic classes. A notable case of a widely adopted mobile technology-enabled service in the developing world is a mobile money service in Kenya called M-pesa. Since its inception, M-pesa has witnessed a mass adoption which has generally been attributed to prior lack of access by majority of individuals' in the country to affordable regulated financial services. M-pesa's presence has now been anticipated to afford a larger population the initial opportunity to harness economic benefits such as: increase money circulation, increase employment opportunities, facilitate social capital accumulation, facilitate savings, and promote financial autonomy, amongst others. Also, M-pesa based transactions in Kenya are reported to exceed those of western union globally. Whilst M-pesa presently vaunts large user adoption numbers, it is the first of its kind in the region to amass such achievement. Further, historically: products and services of similar nature to M-pesa have been unsustainable. A case of M-pesa's demise would have dire implication for the Kenyan economy and 30% of the households in the country that rely on it for remittances. To understand this phenomenon, extant studies have examined the drivers of adoption of this service but have slacked in subsequent investigations to understand user continuance with the service. As such, the information systems literature cautions that initial adoption of technology, although crucial, does not guarantee sustained use. Therefore it is imperative to investigate drivers of continuance. In general, extant research has not focused on investigations of user continuance intention in Africa. In response, this thesis presents an African based study on the determinants of user continuance intention towards M-pesa. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to i) identify and discuss factors from the literature that are most likely to influence user continuance intention towards M-pesa, (ii) develop a research model that is grounded in theory, (iii) test the model within the sample context to identify the antecedents and determinants of user continuance intention towards M-pesa in Kenya. A broad, critical review of the relevant literature provided basis for hypothesized relationships between the identified factors. A formal survey of users of M-pesa in Kenya comprised the phase of data collection and resulted in a usable data set of (n=434). The data collected from the respondents within Kenya was relied upon to test the hypotheses. The survey instrument used to measure the study's constructs was developed via a process of literature review, expert pre-testing, pilot testing, and statistical validation. Partial Least Square and Artificial Neural Network analyses were used to examine the study's measurement and structural model comprising variables of : behavioural beliefs (post-usage usefulness, confirmation, satisfaction), control-beliefs (utilization and flow), object-based beliefs (perceived task-technology fit, system quality, information quality, and service quality), and attitudinal belief (trust). Collectively, the afore-listed ten independent variables and one dependent variable (continuance intention) comprised the study's model. Four of the independent variables (utilization, satisfaction, flow, and trust) were hypothesized to directly determine continuance intention. Of these four, all emerged as determinants of continuance intention. However, trust emerged as the strongest determinant, subsequently, utilization, flow, and satisfaction respectively. The result was unexpected, as satisfaction (a behavioural belief) has been presented in the extant literature as the dominant determinant of continuance intention but does not hold a consistent predictive strength in a developing world. Its predictive power was diluted by trust, utilization, and flow amongst the Kenyan sample. The study's model revealed an R² of 0.334. The analyses demonstrated that user continuance intention is determined by factors across object, control, attitudinal, and behavioural beliefs. The unexpected finding of the rankings of predictive strength of the factors turns a new leaf and introduces areas of further inquiry in future studies. The study concludes with realized contributions to theory and important guidelines for current and future technology-enabled service vendors in developing regions.

Yes / This paper explores how using mobile money services affects food security and nutritional status of households in Tanzania. This study uses data obtained from three waves of the Tanzanian National Panel Surveys and the instrumental variable (IV) approach. The evidence from this paper shows that using mobile money services resulted in household's enhanced nutritional and food security status. Households' receipt of remittances is the main pathway in which using mobile money services influences the food security and nutritional outcomes among households in Tanzania.

Yes / This paper analyses the impact of household adoption of mobile money services on child labour and schooling in Tanzania. The paper uses data drawn from the Tanzania National Panel Surveys (TNPS), for the survey periods as follows: 2008/09, 2010/11, 2012/13, and 2014/15. The TNPS are national representative surveys conducted by the National Bureau of Statistics of Tanzania in collaboration with the World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LMSA-ISA). The surveys collect detailed information on individual, household, and community-level characteristics. The panel nature of the TNPS allows for the same households to be interviewed over time. The study uses a difference-in-differences approach, and instrumental variables strategy to investigate the nexus between mobile money adoption and child labour and school enrolment in Tanzania. The findings of this study reveal a positive and significant effect of mobile money adoption on school enrolment, but a negative effect on children’s labour market activities. Moreover, the study identifies heterogenous impacts across child’s gender and age; and remittances receipt and education expenditure are the potential pathways through which mobile money adoption affects child labour and school enrolment. Overall, the results suggest that policies that enhance financial inclusion such as the introduction of mobile money can be effective in improving child’s school enrolment and a decline in the incidence of child labour.

Mobile financial services, specifically mobile money, has the potential to expand access to financial services to millions of unbanked people in South Africa. As such, it looks very promising in terms of financial inclusion. However, concerns exist that mobile money can be detrimental to financial integrity since there are several proven risk factors linked to mobile financial services. These risk factors make mobile money very susceptible to money laundering. The potential for abuse and the need for appropriate controls is therefore something which cannot be ignored. While the South African legislator has made provision for comprehensive anti-money laundering preventative measures by means of the Financial Intelligence Centre Act 38 of 2001, there exists no South African legislation explicitly concerned with mobile money. It is therefore difficult to determine what the regulatory stance is in terms of mobile money in South Africa. The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is, however, currently focusing attention on the effect which mobile money may have on financial integrity. The latest FATF Recommendations make provision for several anti-money laundering controls which are specifically applicable to mobile money, including controls regarding money or value transfer services and new technologies. While it is always difficult to balance financial integrity and financial inclusion, the risk-based approach makes it possible for governments to implement effective antimoney laundering measures, thereby preserving financial integrity, without the need to compromise on financial inclusion objectives. The fact that South Africa has not fully adopted a risk-based approach is a problem which needs to be addressed if mobile money is to deliver on its promises for financial inclusion, without being detrimental to financial integrity. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Mobile financial services, specifically mobile money, has the potential to expand access to financial services to millions of unbanked people in South Africa. As such, it looks very promising in terms of financial inclusion. However, concerns exist that mobile money can be detrimental to financial integrity since there are several proven risk factors linked to mobile financial services. These risk factors make mobile money very susceptible to money laundering. The potential for abuse and the need for appropriate controls is therefore something which cannot be ignored. While the South African legislator has made provision for comprehensive anti-money laundering preventative measures by means of the Financial Intelligence Centre Act 38 of 2001, there exists no South African legislation explicitly concerned with mobile money. It is therefore difficult to determine what the regulatory stance is in terms of mobile money in South Africa. The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is, however, currently focusing attention on the effect which mobile money may have on financial integrity. The latest FATF Recommendations make provision for several anti-money laundering controls which are specifically applicable to mobile money, including controls regarding money or value transfer services and new technologies. While it is always difficult to balance financial integrity and financial inclusion, the risk-based approach makes it possible for governments to implement effective antimoney laundering measures, thereby preserving financial integrity, without the need to compromise on financial inclusion objectives. The fact that South Africa has not fully adopted a risk-based approach is a problem which needs to be addressed if mobile money is to deliver on its promises for financial inclusion, without being detrimental to financial integrity. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

This thesis will examine the adoption, usage and outcomes of a mobile money service called MPESA. Since being launched in 2007, the service has seen phenomenal growth in Kenya. Over 7.5 million users, or 34% of the adult population, have registered with M-PESA. Such growth is impressive as it has surpassed other ICTs in the country. This includes the mobile phone, which has been hailed as the fastest growing ICT in Africa. It has also surpassed the growth of mobile money in the North, where many services have been discontinued because they failed to attract a sufficient number of customers. M-PESA thus provides an interesting case of an ICT growing rapidly in the South, and “failing” in the North. In this context, the first part of the thesis examines why such rapid growth occurred. This analysis is presented from two perspectives. First, the socio-technical systems framework is used to present M-PESA as a complex system rather than an isolated application. This perspective makes clear that M-PESA grew rapidly because it had a dedicated team of system builders. These individuals took numerous strategies to enroll the elements and maintain the stability of the entire system. They further worked to engineer the social, economic, legal and political environments of the technology. Growth is also explained from the perspective of the user. The thesis makes clear that M-PESA was widely adopted because it fit into existing social practices and systems of logic. In other words, it helped users to do what they were doing before the technology was introduced. This includes money transfers back home. It also includes savings. The thesis further reveals that financial practices began to change as M-PESA became integrated into daily life. For example, users began to send money home more often. They also increased the number of their savings transactions. Such changing practices engendered a variety of consequences to daily life. This includes rising household incomes in the rural areas. It also includes new struggles over limited resources. The impacts, or wider-scale implications of usage, are also discussed. The analysis shows that a whole industry for mobile money developed as a result of M-PESA’s success. The thesis makes a contribution to knowledge in several ways. It presents a case of domestication in the South and highlights the unique factors that shape this process, from wide-scale political violence to structures of debt and obligation. It further makes the relationship between technologies and impact more clear. It shows that the technology itself does not engender the outcomes. It does, however, have a role in shaping the practices that do.

Thesis advisor: S. Anukriti / Since the launch of M-PESA in 2007, mobile money has created the potential to increase financial inclusion by providing a safe and convenient place to store wealth. This paper analyzes the impact of mobile money on savings practices in Sub-Saharan Africa. Using 2015 survey data from Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, I find that mobile money account holders are 10.9 percent more likely to save than non-account holders, holding constant other characteristics. Mobile money has a positive and significant impact on saving for daily consumption, for protection against income shocks, and for business and education investments. In addition, I find that mobile money is a complement to formal savings (bank accounts) and a substitute for informal savings. By increasing saving, mobile money better enables individuals to rely on savings in the event of a negative income shock. These results are consistent with a policy agenda that promotes financial inclusion by increasing access to mobile technologies. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2017. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Departmental Honors. / Discipline: Economics.

This thesis analyzes the connection of mobile phone technology to increased economic development in Kenya. Drawing on previous research, I first examine the state of development by analyzing social, political, and economic factors in Kenya in 2007/2008. I then examine the role of technology on these development factors in Kenya by focusing on the rapid rise of mobile money platform M-Pesa and the rise of decentralized banking. This thesis finds that M-Pesa’s success stems from the failure of public trust in traditional institutions, collaboration between the public, private, and nonprofit sector, initial lack of regulation to promote innovation, and heavy consumer testing to create the best product-market fit. Additionally, in comparison to other sub-Saharan countries, Kenya’s institutions have more willingly allowed for nontraditional methods of investment and aid. While none of these results are entirely conclusive, evidence suggests that the rise of mobile money and technological innovation has attributed heavily to economic development into 2018, but that social and political development factors are still restrained. Ultimately, technology is not the solution to all factors of cyclical poverty, but it can create new approaches to previously neglected development constraints.