Technology changes often force teachers, trainers, instructional designers, and administrators to make instructional design and delivery decisions that ideally should be based upon pedagogy research. In many circumstances, however, a foundational pedagogy question is only recognized when a technology decision reveals it. Such is the case when deciding what mode (video or audio) to use for learner interaction in a synchronous online learning event. While some research has focused on the learning and the satisfaction of learners when they were interacting, almost no research has addressed the learning value of observing the interactions of other learners. The purpose of this research study was to investigate whether the mode in which direct learner interactions were made affected non-interacting learners' recall of content in a synchronous virtual learning environment. The participants in this study viewed one of three versions of a webinar on Multimedia Games for Learning: a) all learners interacted in video mode; b) all learners interacted in audio mode; or all learners interacted in both video and audio in a mixed mode. No statistically significant difference was found between the video, audio, and mixed treatment conditions in terms of the recall of content from the questions or comments made by directly interacting learners. However, a statically significant difference was found in non-interacting learners' recall of the contributions of direct interactors based on the mode of interaction within the mixed-mode group. Study participants recalled more of the contributions made in the audio mode of interaction than in the video mode when the modes were mixed. These findings suggest that designers of synchronous online learning may choose either video or audio mode without affecting those learners who are not directly interacting but should take care in mixing interaction modes within a single synchronous online learning event. The contributions of the study reach beyond the findings. The study supports vicarious interaction as a process worthy of research and e-Learning design consideration. It provides a model for experimental manipulation of "simulated" synchronous sessions, and it introduces recall of others' verbal contributions as an approach to measurement of the attention granted vicarious interactions by those not interacting directly with others.

Magister Administrationis - MAdmin / The research investigation explores the topic from the point of view of intergovernmental institutions and the regional (departmental) decision-making process in Santa Cruz- Bolivia. The purpose was to determine if these institutions influence the decision-making process of actors in the area of road infrastructure. The topic is explored from the viewpoint of Actor-Centered Institutionalism from Scharpf. It states that the solutions to solve social problems can be explained as the outcome of interactions among intentional actors, but that these interactions are structured and outcomes are influenced by the characteristics of the institutional setting in which they occur. For that purpose, the study identifies the actor constellations participating in the process, their modes of interaction and the constraints they face as a result of the institutional setting. The research starts by distinguishing the formal, informal and fiscal lOR institutions and determine their importance; for this purpose, the classification by Agranoff is used. Afterwards, the investigation portrays the decision-making process in the area and analyzes the final decisions of actors as a result of the institutions shaping them. It is argued that mostly fiscal arrangements are shaping the decision-making process in the area. The formal and informal arrangements are determining the actor constellations participating in the process and how they interact, as well as which institutional constraints they face. It is concluded that there are missing channels of intergovernmental cooperation between the national and the departmental level, and it generates misunderstandings and uncertainty. The channels of cooperation between the department and the provinces exist, but training and technical advice is needed to enhance actors' capacities at this level. The mini-thesis concludes with the policy implications derived from the dynamics at the regional level and identifying other factors influencing the decision-making process.