The aim of this study is to assess the advantages and disadvantages to all the troop members, of vervet males remaining in heterosexual groups outside the mating season. Extensive data on time budgeting and social interactions have been obtained for both a caged and a free-ranging undisturbed troop. Some of the potential advantages males provide to other members of the troop are: improvement in predator detection, maintenance of the troop unity and interference in agonistic interactions involving females and immatures. Special emphasis is placed on the analysis of seasonal changes in agonistic, social, sexual and proximity relationships of male-male and male-female pairs. The influence of male and female dominance rank and the vervet male genital signalling system are discussed. Also a framework to achieve a better understanding of vervet monkey sexuality is provided. A detailed analysis of male inspection of female's genitalia (visual, tactile, olfactory and muzzling), female receptivity, attractivity and proceptive behaviour has been done in order to investigate male and female mate choice. These behaviours are expected to be related to time of conception, although it was found that male and female rank, mate choice and possibly the age of the mates influence their outcome. In addition, sexual consortships and other alternative male strategies (besides agonistic rank) to control access to receptive females are described for the first time in vervet monkeys. The multi-male structure of vervet societies has been questioned by other authors, mostly because of the absence of male-male agonistic coalition against other males, and the absence of sexual consortships and other special friendly bonds between males and females. However, the results of this study do show that all the above patterns may also occur among vervet monkeys, therefore the multi-male structure of vervet monkeys is similar to the one found in baboon and macaque societies. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1991.

Urbanisation, a process occurring at an excessive rate per annum, has implications for the natural environment that are vast and varied. One of the most significant is the effect on natural habitats, shaped by habitat destruction and modification. The simplification of ecosystems, homogenisation of landscapes and influence on keystone species are a few impacts on indigenous fauna existing in these habitats. Some species are unable to withstand external disturbances, while other species are more adaptable, and often thrive in these modified, and now optimal, environments. Increasingly, provisions are made to accommodate nature in an urbanising world with tools like Impact Assessments and Opens Space Systems. These procedures however, do little to specifically protect indigenous fauna, progressively categorised as "problem animals" or vermin, like monkeys, which often bear the brunt of attacks by humans who see them as a nuisance and a threat to their well-being. The study therefore aimed to "Assess the nature and extent of the monkey problem in the former Westville Borough", a suburb in the city of Durban, South Africa. Questionnaires administered to residents and interviews done with stakeholders documented their views on the "monkey problem," and the effectiveness of proposed solutions in alleviating these problems. Using orthographic photographs, illustrating land-use change, the rate and nature of habitat destruction experienced in the former Westville Borough between 1974 and 2001 was assessed. Records of injuries to monkeys held by the Centre for Rehabilitation of Wildlife (CROW), along with letters of complaint regarding monkeys in local newspapers, were collected to assess the nature and frequency of the problem. Resident's opinions implied that the threat of Vervet Monkeys was more perceived then real. Eighty three percent thought monkeys were not a threat to humans. Education and awareness campaigns were thought to be successful in alleviating the problem by 86% of residents and 100% of interviewees. Residents believed that "everyone" should be responsible for the problem while interviewees were divided in opinion but placed most responsibility on local government. An assessment of land-use changed showed a decrease of over 15% in open space provision over a twenty six year period. CROW records showed that the majority of monkey injuries were due to assault or shooting and most often to males between the months of April and July. Conclusions based on the findings of the study emphasise the need for stronger legislation specifically for Vervets and detailed guidelines on both management of and responsibility for the monkeys, with less shifting of blame by stakeholders and authorities. The implementation of education and awareness programs were also advocated, to educate the public on the problem and their role in protecting one of Africa's most valuable assets. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

This study uses data from three free-ranging and one caged troop to describe the visual signals identified in the South African subspecies of vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops pygerythrus) and to then compare them to those seen at other localities and in other species. It further assesses some signals used specifically by adult males - those involving secondary sexual characters - in terms of male social strategies. In the pursuance of this four aspects of the literature were reviewed in detail. It is concluded that: 1. Natal vervets use fewer visual signals that do other species living in more open habitat. These signals are, however, very similar to those recorded in East Africa, while differing more from those isolated in the West African representitive of the vervet group. 2. Vervet troops are not closed units and migration - both into and out of the troop - occurs frequently. The data suggest that it is a male phenomenon related to the availability of females. 3. The signalling function of the genitals does not accord with that ascribed to them by Wickler (1967). Penile extensions are closely associated with aggressive behaviour by the signaller, and scrotal retractions with submissive behaviour. Associated with these structures are displays that facilitate their presentation to the recipients. 4. While males yawn more than any other age-sex class, largely for social and not physiological reasons, there is no clear evidence that yawns serve specifically to display the canines. Nevertheless, by being strongly associated with certain interactions they are presumed to accrue signal value. 5. As males move into troops where they must compete with unrelated males for the same resources, it is concluded that the genital signalling system has evolved to mediate male relationships. This is of special significance as the "multimale" system of vervets is regarded as being less developed than those of Papio or Macaca monkeys. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1982.

Biotelemetry has been coupled with an ethological approach to investigate a postulate that the physiological, behavioural, and social functioning of individuals coact in order to maintain homeostasis in an everchanging environment. Attention was focussed upon body temperature, behaviour, and the social situation, as they occurred together in each of five 'undisturbed' adult vervet monkeys. One male and one female were housed alone in single cages, and the other three, all females, were part of a natural troop that live together in captivity in a 6.5 metre radius geodesic dome. Intensive studies, including in-depth and multiple repeated measures at each level of functioning permitted comparisons between and within subjects, so that the connections between body temperature, and individual and social behaviour, could be scrutinised. Techniques for observation, data processing, and factor analysis have been considered, and procedures to facilitate the organisation and interpretation of information are suggested. The results pointed to individual variations superimposed upon a rhythmic underpinning of all the functions monitored. A synthesis of the data of body temperature with individual and social behaviour supports the contention that the individual responds to the vagaries of the environment as an integrated system within which the different levels of functioning are linked. It was found that the oscillation in body temperature was greater in the vervets that lived alone than in the vervets that lived in a troop. These results were supported behaviourally since the isolated subjects could only complement autonomic thermoregulatory responses with individually based behavioural strategies, whereas their troop-living conspecifics could utilise both individual and socially directed behavioural mechanisms. Within the troop an inverse relationship between body temperature variation and social status was revealed that is, the lower the status of the subject, the more the body temperature fluctuated around the mean. Behaviourally, it was found that the lower the status of the subject, the more difficult it became to gain access to resources, and to manipulate interpersonal space. In addition, harassment by troop conspecifics increased and, consequently, the efficiency with which behavioural patterns could be executed, was decreased. An analysis of the data also led to the proposal that social grooming has evolved as a thermoregulatory mechanism; to the identification of three different facets of individual behaviour and of social behaviour; and to the idea that the rhythmic changes in the troop's spatial conformation reflected cyclical patterns in behavioural and social activity. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal Durban, 1984.

Perceived predation risk has a large impact on how prey species utilise landscapes. In an effort to reduce predation risk, individuals tend to utilise safer areas more than unsafe areas. How perceived predation risk affects the utilisation of landscapes by animals is termed a “landscape of fear”. Vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) have a landscape of fear that operates in both horizontal and vertical planes. Within this landscape, vervets perceive the safest area to be up in a tree, under the canopy. To reduce predation risk, vervets use various predator-specific alarm calls and have been found to eavesdrop on the alarm calls of other species (e.g. birds). In this study, I explored whether vervet monkeys were able to associate eavesdropped alarm calls with specific predator types (i.e. aerial and terrestrial) as they do with their own predator specific alarm calls. To do this, I first quantified the three-dimensional landscape of fear for vervet monkeys by measuring giving up densities in artificial patches. I then used playbacks of the vervets’ aerial and terrestrial predator alarm calls, the alarm call of a red-backed shrike, and a mixed-species flock mobbing call to manipulate perceived predation risk. By comparing changes in foraging intensity within the patches, I quantified the specific reactions of the vervet monkeys to aerial and terrestrial predators. In addition, I found that the monkeys did not eavesdrop on the red-backed shrike call. However, the vervets did eavesdrop on bird mobbing calls, and associated the calls with the location of the potential treat and reacted as if it was a particular predator type. Specifically, the vervets reacted to mobbing calls played from up in a tree the same way as they did if an aerial predator was present, and calls from the ground as if a terrestrial predator was present. Thus, this suggests that they were able to associate a non-functional referential call (i.e. the mobbing call) with specific information, gathered from the location of the calls, and interpreted it in a referential manner. Moreover, intensity of these reactions (as measured by total feeding effort) indicated that vervets saw aerial predators as a greater threat compared to terrestrial predators. Ultimately, my results suggest that vervets can associate eavesdropped calls with specific predators, and this likely provides a fitness benefit in a dangerous and unpredictable world. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.