The purpose of the research was to investigate the causes and effects of stone decay and soiling upon Scottish market crosses, and to develop a risk assessment model for this monument type. Risk assessment methods are otherwise used in spheres of business and industry. This research is unique in exploring the possibility of applying these techniques to the study and prediction of monument degradation. Additionally, the research is the first synthesised study of market crosses since 1928. A mapping methodology was developed in order to record the condition of a sample of Scottish market crosses. Visible evidence of the erosion, soiling and conservation of these monuments was collected and analysed in relation to various associated weathering factors. A risk assessment model was then developed for predicting the future condition of such monuments. Integrated with this, intervention criteria and conservation guidelines were also produced aimed at those charged with the care of market crosses. The model was applied to a case study to assess the risk of degradation of the tested monument. The method was found to work in practice, and could be used by practitioners in the future. The methodology for the research can be summarised as follows. Based upon the literature review, hypotheses were formulated regarding the effect of various weathering factors upon decay and soiling patterns. Data for all surviving market crosses in Scotland was co11ected from archives and publications. A pro-forma and relational database were designed to hold an of the gathered data. A sample of 27 crosses was selected for detailed analysis. An increased level of data was col1ected for the sampled crosses, and a programme of intensive fieldwork was undertaken at these. Evidence for a11 visible decay, soiling and conservation treatment was mapped onto a detailed elevation sketch of each facade of every sampled cross. The decay and soiling were also classified according to intensity level and surface extent, based upon evidence from visual observation. In addition to the drafted mappings, the visited monuments were subject to a photographic survey. The collected data were analysed by interrogating the database and by applying a variety of statistical tests. A number of significant relationships were indicated between the various decay/soiling types and weathering agents. It was found that the patterns of decay, and particularly soiling, were greatly influenced by the monument characteristics, primarily due to the degree to which the stone was exposed to moisture ingress. Environmental factors were also found to have some influence, particularly the nature of the ground surface and the land-use type. Surprising1y, the leve1 of nearby traffic was found to have little effect. Climatic factors were shown to be significant in relation to a few decay/soiling types. However, the contradictory nature of these trends suggested that the ranges within Scotland may be too limited to have much real effect upon the observed variations in decay/soiling. Previous intervention was found to have some significant effects, particularly in the case of chemical stone cleaning. Risk levels for each significant relationship were calculated from the rate of occurrence and the amount of stone degradation observed in the sample. The sample risk model was developed to produce a pro-forma designed for use by practitioners involved in managing Scottish market crosses. Practitioners could use the designed system to regularly record the condition of other crosses and assess the extent to which they are at risk from decay/soiling due to various weathering agents existing at each site. Intervention criteria were also produced in order to advise the practitioner on when and how to intervene to stall the current decay or to reduce the risks of future degradation of crosses in their care. Methods were also suggested for interpreting and promoting market crosses to the public.

No description available.

The Monuments at Risk Survey 1995 (MARS) outlined rates and causes of identified monument loss in England, showing that 16% of recorded monuments had been completely destroyed by 1995, and that 95% of surviving monuments in England had suffered partial destruction. Hitherto, no equivalent research has been undertaken in Scotland. Using a 17% random stratified sample of 779 field monuments surviving in 1850 within a study area encompassing much of the local authority areas of Perth and Kinross, Fife and Angus, the present research has analysed the distribution and quantified loss of archaeological monuments since 1850 in relation to a number of variables including land use, Land Capability for Agriculture, elevation, local authority area, monument period and material construction. Results show that monument distribution within the study area varies most noticeably according to land use and elevation. The highest densities of extant monuments are found in semi-natural woodland (17.2 extant sample monuments per 100km2) and non-intensive land uses such as unimproved grazing and moorland (13.8 extant sample monuments per 100km2). The lowest density of extant monuments is found in arable and improved pasture (4.5 extant sample monuments per 100km2), although this is offset by a recorded density of 11.5 cropmark sample monuments per 100km2. By elevation, monument densities are highest below 100m OD (24.4 monuments per 100km2) and between 250m OD and 400m OD (21 monuments per 100 km2)with a pronounced paucity of recorded monuments between 100m OD and 200m OD, particularly on improved and arable land. For each sample monument, a condition history has been constructed through a desk-based study using data from the National Monuments Record of Scotland. This desk-based study has recorded the greatest causes of monument loss since 1850 as unknown causes (28% of loss), archaeological excavation (24% of loss), farming (15% of loss) and development (11% of loss). The monument condition histories created through the desk-based study have then been augmented and calibrated for a subsample of 258 monuments by means of an accuracy assessment, using information from vertical and oblique aerial photographs, survey reports from Historic Scotland Monument Wardens and a programme of field survey. Using these additional data sources, the accuracy assessment has identified the largest causes of monument loss within the study area since 1850 as forestry (31% of loss), farming (28% of loss) and development (12% of loss). Analysis shows that among monuments extant in 1850, a minimum of 38% have been reduced in extent, with at least 5% destroyed. Loss has been greatest among monuments found in arable and improved land (39% reduced, 27% destroyed), forestry (79% reduced, 9% destroyed) and developed land (63% reduced, 27% destroyed), and lowest among monuments found in permanent pasture (91% undamaged), semi-natural woodland (75% undamaged) and rough grazing and moorland (85% undamaged). Although the use of a desk-based study and accuracy assessment has proved successful in identifying trends in the loss of visible monuments, it has been necessary to employ alternative methods by which to assess damage at buried monuments represented by cropmarks. To this end, a programme of excavation, topographic survey and soil depth recording has been undertaken at five locations in Perth and Kinross. Analysis of the results from this programme of excavation and survey has identified statistically significant relationships between land surface curvature and topsoil depth at three of the five sites examined, enabling the mapping at site scale of areas which are likely to have been subject to greatest agricultural damage. Extrapolating from these site-specific maps, it has been possible to map probable damage and risk to cropmark monuments at a regional scale. Although the validity of this regional scale mapping has been limited by the 25m cell size of the digital terrain model on which it has been based, the potential of such a technique in enabling a rapid preliminary assessment of damage and risk to cropmark monuments has been demonstrated.

Thesis (M. Sc.)--University of Hong Kong, 1993. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 68-71).

Submitted by Biblioteca Central (biblioteca@unicap.br) on 2018-02-22T18:25:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 aureliano_amaro_ribeiro_souza_macedo.pdf: 4739932 bytes, checksum: a843a7ec0d2fca6ec5571df431242191 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-02-22T18:25:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 aureliano_amaro_ribeiro_souza_macedo.pdf: 4739932 bytes, checksum: a843a7ec0d2fca6ec5571df431242191 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-11-10 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES# / #2075167498588264571# / #600 / This work has as its theme "The Damage Map of the Facades of the Santa Izabel Theatre". It results from a qualitative literature review, in books and websites containing scientific articles and relevant legislation, and a field visit to the historic building. It provides an overview of the selected theme including historical monuments, relevant legislation, the outer cladding system, pathological manifestations and a damage map. Moreover, it evaluates the pathologies in the building’s facades, specifying the active degradation processes, that is, the main pathologies in coatings and those associated with the building’s natural environment. The mapping of the existing conditions, including degradation and changeability of the stone material along the years, were performed, making it possible to intervene in the Historic Monument, trying to identify the causes and effects of the damage, and to produce the full report of its pathological manifestations and forms of work to satisfactorily remedy the existing damage in the historic building. / Esta dissertação tem como tema “O Mapa de Danos das Fachadas do Teatro de Santa Izabel”. Resulta de uma pesquisa bibliográfica de natureza qualitativa, em livros e sites da internet contendo artigos científicos e legislação pertinente, e de campo, com visitas ao edifício histórico. Apresenta uma visão geral da temática abordada, monumentos históricos, legislação pertinente, o sistema de revestimento de fachada, as manifestações patológicas e mapa de danos. Avalia-se ainda as patologias das fachadas desse edifício, especificando-se os processos de degradação atuantes, ou seja, as principais manifestações em revestimentos associadas ao ambiente natural da edificação. Procedeu-se ao mapeamento das manifestações patológicas existentes, sua degradação e alterabilidade do material pétreo. Observou-se que o Monumento Histórico vem sofrendo ao passar dos anos deterioração por completo em suas fachadas, e por este motivo foi feito um levantamento das manifestações patológicas existentes para ao mesmo tempo lançar mão da ferramenta Mapa de Danos e assim intervir no Monumento Histórico, procurando identificar as causas, origens e mecanismos desses danos, bem como formas de atuar satisfatoriamente na edificação histórica para sanar os danos nela existentes.

As the "Revolution" threatened Rome during the final decades of the Republic, the many landscapes of the city — built, intellectual, social and natural — became inextricably linked within a confused cultural matrix. Vitruvius was not simply observing a set of places; he was living within spaces that, while having lost many of their explicit meanings over time, contained within them implicit, albeit unclear, cultural codes for him to ponder. Vitruvius in fact was not describing Roman architecture as it was; he was describing it as he wished it to be. There are a host of reasons to question the physical exactitude of his examples and subsequent models: The vantage point of a single individual living within a specific place at a particular moment in time was, and continues to be, limited at best. There are geographical and architectural inaccuracies that leave the reader wondering if Vitruvius actually saw much of what was inserted within the treatise. And Vitruvius would have generalized in order to arrive at the broad sets of tenets contained in the books. The "looseness" characterizing the tenets of Vitruvius is precisely what has enabled imaginative interpretations over the centuries. By including drawings within translations, the classical imagination has become fused with memories of what monuments should look like. Linked to this, translated versions of Vitruvius' treatise can be usurped in order to connect ruins more closely to Roman architectural ideals than they may have been in the first place. The translation and annotation project of Jean Gardet and Dominique Bertin in the 1550s is an example of how the treatise of Vitruvius was attached, inextricably, to the antiquities of southern France. The habit of turning to the De Architectura in order to produce a body of archaeological knowledge and in turn to provide "proof for the architectural reconstruction of classical monuments has persisted. In the end, the monument can serve as confirmation for the translated text, and the text re-confirms the monument. In Orange, the use of the treatise by architects has been retraced to show that the reconstructed theater does not correspond, in its rebuilt state, to that which would have stood in its place. Eventually, the habit of turning to Vitruvius was adapted to such an extent that it practically became invisible, with architects and archaeologists turning to it with little thought as to its contextual validity. This is probably why we see so few explicit references to its use in the literature documenting the re-building of monuments; it is only by retracing field notes that the extent to which it was used, even relatively lately, can be assessed. At the same time, classical archaeology has — and continues to — direct its attention to deblayage, remaniements, consolidations and in time, la sauvegarde. The present-day impetus for these activities is closely connected to history, heritage and ultimately, the notion of patrimoine. The difficulty today is that the more we re-build, whether it be for basic cultural consumption or within grander state agendas, the recourse to producing related bodies of knowledge to justify architectural plans has the potential to increase significantly. The understanding of classical architecture within the context of history and heritage must be met by a corresponding comprehension of its temporal, formal and social nature; Vitruvius' words, as I have stressed, do not necessarily depict a material architecture. Vitruvius' architect lived within an urban setting that was highly dynamic and not necessarily readily interpreted. And while Republican spaces derived from a need for function, efficiency, beauty and representation, they were not necessarily or completely redesigned each time they were reused; they were often modified to suit. Notions related to specific and ideal spaces were most probably stored within the minds of the multifaceted designers to be shaped according to particular sets of pre-existing cultural and built conditions as well as geographical settings. And to these, the craftspeople would have added personal interpretations. Today the problems arise when architects and archaeologists, eager to convince themselves and others of their theoretic, forget that we simply do not know what memories resided in the mind of Roman architects.

As the "Revolution" threatened Rome during the final decades of the Republic, the many landscapes of the city — built, intellectual, social and natural — became inextricably linked within a confused cultural matrix. Vitruvius was not simply observing a set of places; he was living within spaces that, while having lost many of their explicit meanings over time, contained within them implicit, albeit unclear, cultural codes for him to ponder. Vitruvius in fact was not describing Roman architecture as it was; he was describing it as he wished it to be. There are a host of reasons to question the physical exactitude of his examples and subsequent models: The vantage point of a single individual living within a specific place at a particular moment in time was, and continues to be, limited at best. There are geographical and architectural inaccuracies that leave the reader wondering if Vitruvius actually saw much of what was inserted within the treatise. And Vitruvius would have generalized in order to arrive at the broad sets of tenets contained in the books. The "looseness" characterizing the tenets of Vitruvius is precisely what has enabled imaginative interpretations over the centuries. By including drawings within translations, the classical imagination has become fused with memories of what monuments should look like. Linked to this, translated versions of Vitruvius' treatise can be usurped in order to connect ruins more closely to Roman architectural ideals than they may have been in the first place. The translation and annotation project of Jean Gardet and Dominique Bertin in the 1550s is an example of how the treatise of Vitruvius was attached, inextricably, to the antiquities of southern France. The habit of turning to the De Architectura in order to produce a body of archaeological knowledge and in turn to provide "proof for the architectural reconstruction of classical monuments has persisted. In the end, the monument can serve as confirmation for the translated text, and the text re-confirms the monument. In Orange, the use of the treatise by architects has been retraced to show that the reconstructed theater does not correspond, in its rebuilt state, to that which would have stood in its place. Eventually, the habit of turning to Vitruvius was adapted to such an extent that it practically became invisible, with architects and archaeologists turning to it with little thought as to its contextual validity. This is probably why we see so few explicit references to its use in the literature documenting the re-building of monuments; it is only by retracing field notes that the extent to which it was used, even relatively lately, can be assessed. At the same time, classical archaeology has — and continues to — direct its attention to deblayage, remaniements, consolidations and in time, la sauvegarde. The present-day impetus for these activities is closely connected to history, heritage and ultimately, the notion of patrimoine. The difficulty today is that the more we re-build, whether it be for basic cultural consumption or within grander state agendas, the recourse to producing related bodies of knowledge to justify architectural plans has the potential to increase significantly. The understanding of classical architecture within the context of history and heritage must be met by a corresponding comprehension of its temporal, formal and social nature; Vitruvius' words, as I have stressed, do not necessarily depict a material architecture. Vitruvius' architect lived within an urban setting that was highly dynamic and not necessarily readily interpreted. And while Republican spaces derived from a need for function, efficiency, beauty and representation, they were not necessarily or completely redesigned each time they were reused; they were often modified to suit. Notions related to specific and ideal spaces were most probably stored within the minds of the multifaceted designers to be shaped according to particular sets of pre-existing cultural and built conditions as well as geographical settings. And to these, the craftspeople would have added personal interpretations. Today the problems arise when architects and archaeologists, eager to convince themselves and others of their theoretic, forget that we simply do not know what memories resided in the mind of Roman architects. / Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies / Graduate

The purposes of this creative project were (1) to develop a stone conservation plan for some of the markers in the "Old Part" of Beech Grove Cemetery, (2) to bring attention to the plight of a sampling of the cemetery stone markers in the "Old Part," and (3) to provide a written and photographic database for those individuals who are concerned with the preservation/conservation of Beech Grove Cemetery, in the hopes that a conservation plan can be implemented throughout the cemetery.Results revealed that a vast majority of Beech Grove's markers are deteriorating due to several natural factors such as weathering and erosion, as well as to neglect and vandalism. I have included, in this project, 195 stone inventory forms with a correlating map and photograph of those stones surveyed. The results also confirmed my theory that little conservation has taken place in the cemetery. Some conservation efforts that have been applied to the stone markers have further damaged them due to inappropriate methods. / Department of Architecture

American cemeteries have evolved from unsophisticated and crowded burial grounds to curvilinear and elegantly designed rural cemeteries to the functional business of the memorial park. Regardless of the type, all cemeteries are constantly changing due to their natural features and because of the deterioration of stone after prolonged exposure to the elements. Then add neglect or vandalism into the mix and cemeteries appear to be particularly doomed.This creative project examines the cemeteries in Delaware County, Indiana. Working from "Cemeteries in Delaware County, Indiana" by Rosaella Cartwright and Elizabeth Modlin, an inventory was completed for the sixty located cemeteries. The ten that were not inventoried were outside the scope of the project, could not be located, or inaccessible. The landscape features, markers, funerary art motifs, and preservation efforts were recorded and the data was then analyzed. Issues and challenges facing the cemeteries were investigated, including how to go about properly documenting a cemetery and general information on cleaning and repairing markers. Finally preservation guidelines and recommendations were proposed for the cemeteries in Delaware County. / Department of Architecture

Shelters, as preventive conservation methods, have traditionally been considered a better option than leaving the site exposed. However, there has been limited research on their effect on the preservation of heritage materials and, as a result, there is no clear scientific evidence to support sheltering. This study aims to provide the first rigorous scientific assessment of the effect of lightweight, open shelters on limestone deterioration at archaeological sites. A method based on the use of low-cost environmental monitoring equipment and limestone blocks and tablets (as indicators of decay) has been developed to determine the degree of protection provided by the shelters at the Bishop' Palace (Witney, England) and Hagar Qim (Malta). Preliminary visual assessments of the field sites were followed by 12-18 month exposure trials. Temperature extremes and fluctuations, frost events, relative humidity extremes and fluctuations, NaCl crystallisation events, solar radiation, wetting events, salt content, atmospheric pollutants and dust deposition were monitored. In addition, stone decay was studied by analysing changes in weight, elasticity, surface hardness, ultrasonic pulse velocity, surface colour, moisture content and general appearance (microscopic and macroscopic pictures) in stone samples. An exhaustive assessment of the shelter at the Bishop's Palace was carried out using Chalk, Cotswold and Portland limestone blocks as well as Portland limestone tablets (specifically for studying dissolution, soiling and biological growth). Additionally, a comparative assessment of the effects of the two shelters in contrasting climatic environments, the Bishop's Palace (temperate maritime) and Hagar Qim (Mediterranean), was undertaken by monitoring Globigerina and Coralline limestone blocks simultaneously at both sites. The research has shown that lightweight, open shelters do not exclude decay completely but minimise it. However, there are some areas at higher risk of decay, i.e. top parts of the walls and the periphery. In addition, problems with the shelter design can enhance some decay mechanisms, such as biocolonisation on the periphery at the Bishop's Palace and dust deposition under the shelter at Hagar Qim. Therefore, the effectiveness of shelters should not be assumed.