Due to the complexity of body-shape, the investigation of hydrodynamic forces on mooring lines, especially those comprised of chain segments, has not been conducted to a sufficient degree to properly characterize the hydrodynamic damping effect of mooring lines on the global motions of a moored offshore platform. In the present study, an experimental investigation of the hydrodynamic characteristics of various mooring elements is implemented through free and forced oscillation tests. Since no direct measurement capability for distributed hydrodynamic forces acting on mooring line segments such as chain and wire rope is available yet, an indirect measurement technique is introduced. The technique is based on the fact that hydrodynamic forces acting on a body oscillating in still water and on a stationary body in an oscillatory flow are equivalent except for the additional inertia force, the so-called Froude-Krylov force, present in the latter condition. The time-dependent displacement of a slender body moving in calm water is acquired through optical tracking with a high speed camera. The distributed hydrodynamic measurements are then used to obtain the force by solving the equation of motion with the boundary condition provided from tension measurements. Morison’s equation is employed along with Fourier analysis to separate the inertia and drag components out of the total fluid force. Given the experimentally-derived information on hydrodynamic behavior, the resistance provided by a mooring line to a floating structure is briefly studied in terms of damping and restoring force in a coupled dynamic system.

With the increasing developments of exploiting oil and natural gas in deep water and harnessing renewable (wave and wind) energy in the sea, mooring lines and risers are widely deployed to position the related floating structures. Subject to environmental loads, a mooring line or riser connected to floating structure, moves up and down, back and forth, and sometimes from the left to the right. In computation of the dynamics of a mooring line or riser, it is often modeled as a flexible slender rod. While the bending moment of a chain or a rope is neglected, that of a riser is considered and specified by characteristics of the riser. Existing numerical codes for simulating the dynamics of a slender rod, such as CABLE3D, allow for the vertical support force and longitudinal (along the direction of the rod) friction from soils of the seabed while the transverse (in the direction transverse to the slender rod) friction between the rod and the seabed soils is not considered. In this study, we extend the current version of CABLE3D to allow for the transverse friction applied on the portion of a slender rod contacting the seabed soil, which is time-varying when it is moving. The friction between a slender rod and the seabed soil is computed based upon a Coulomb model originally developed for the simulation of the friction in all dry contact mechanical systems. In applying the Coulomb model, the transverse friction depends on the transverse displacement and/or velocity of a slender rod contacting the seabed. In addition, vertical bottom support of the seabed soil is calculated based on the shear stress of the seabed soil. The simulations of the dynamics of a few typical mooring lines are made given their motions at their fairleads and the results are compared with the corresponding results obtained using Orcaflex, a commercial code, and the existing version of CABLE3D.

Previous work on modal analysis of mooring lines has been performed from different theoretical formulations. Most studies have focused on mooring lines of a single homogeneous material, and the effect of added mass and damping produced by the water has not been examined deeply. The variational formulation approach, employed in this research to perform a modal analysis, has been useful to study the behavior of several realistic mooring lines. The cases presented are composed from segments of materials with different mechanical characteristics, more similar to those in current offshore projects. In the newly proposed formulation, damping produced by transverse motion of the mooring line through the surrounding water has been added to the modal analysis. The modal analysis formulation applied in this work has been verified with calculations from commercial software and the results are sufficiently accurate to understand the global behavior of the dynamics of mooring lines with the damping produced by the sea water. Inclusion of linearized drag damping in the modal analysis showed that the modal periods of the mooring systems studied depend on the amplitude of the transverse motion of the mooring line. When more amplitude in the motion is expected more damping is obtained. Two realistic designs of mooring lines were compared: one made up with a main insert of steel rope, called “Steel System”, and one composed by a main insert of polyester, named “Polyester System”. Comparing the natural periods of both systems, the Steel System appears to be safer because its fundamental natural period is more distant from the wave excitation periods produced by storms. The same happens considering the wave excitation periods produced by prevailing seas. In this case the natural periods of the Polyester System are nearer to the wave excitation periods causing fatigue loads. The transverse mode shapes for lateral motions of the mooring lines are observed to be continuous and smooth across material transitions, such as transitions between chain and wire rope and transitions between chain and polyester rope. This behavior is not always observed in the tangential mode shapes for the Polyester System where significant differences in dynamic tension seem to be present in the specific cases studied.

The purpose of this report is not only to improve the cage volume deformation problem during typhoon attack but also to perform the risk analysis for a single-point-mooring (SPM) net cage system when employed in the open sea. This SPM cage system has advantages over the traditional multi-mooring lines cage system, especially when the water depth is deeper than 50m, which may prohibit divers from checking the security of anchors as well as installing the mooring system at a precise position due to the difficulty in deploying anchors in the deep and restless ocean. But the SPM cage system has no such deploying problems, and yet offers some benefits such as: (1) having environmental eco-friendly feature, the uneaten feeds could spread in a vast area and thus reduce the intensity of pollution, (2) employing only one mooring line means saving a lot of construction cost, (3) a precise location is not required and thus relatively easier to be installed at any sites, and (4) easier to connect or remove cages from the mooring system. So far the SPM cage systems have become one of the most potential cage systems in the world. For example, Israel and Canada have individually developed their own SPM cage systems. This study also follows this trend and focuses on developing a new system which is suitable to Taiwan marine environment. The numerical model for cage motion equations are solved based on the lumped mass method which produces the maximum mooring line strength and the minimum of the volume deformation. As for the risk analysis for mooring line consists of two procedures: at first to form a loading probability density function, which is based on the recent data records forming significant wave probability density function and its corresponding mooring tension probability density function of rope through beta distribution technique; secondly to form a strength capacity probability density function, which is given by a rope manufacture company. Finally, the breaking risk of mooring lines is obtained by calculating the intersection area of loading and strength capacity probability density functions. The results show that the cage with a portal frame has good performance in general, especially when the sea states are rigorous. In other words, the frame-cage could maintain about 2 times net volume compared with the cage without a frame. However, the advantage of frame-cage is not obvious when the sea states are mild. Besides, the distance of frame ropes to the cage will also affect the net volume deformation, the trend shows that the net volume deformation increases with the decreasing of the distance of frame ropes. Finally assuming there are four typhoons per year attacking on the net cage system, the recommended replacing period of nylon mooring line (diameter 55 mm)is about 7 years, while for PET mooring line (diameter 50 mm)is about 13.4 years. The failure risk probability of nylon and PET mooring lines at the recommended replacing years are about 0.49 and 0.48~0.49 respectively. Therefore, we strongly recommend marine farmers to use PET ropes instead of nylon and have to replace those ropes before the failure occurs.

Com o advento de plataformas flutuantes dispostas em laminas d’água, cada vez mais profundas, o desenvolvimento de linhas de ancoragem mais leves, resistentes e economicamente viáveis, foram e estão sendo desenvolvidas, sendo os materiais poliméricos os mais promissores. O poliéster, pela excelente combinação de propriedades (densidade, resistência química, durabilidade, resistência mecânica, custo, etc.) tem-se mostrado como a melhor opção para profundidades de até 2.000 metros. Entretanto, a utilização de cabos poliméricos é uma tecnologia relativamente nova, pois as primeiras instalações realizadas pela Petrobras iniciaram a partir de 1997. Desde lá, muitos testes e simulações foram realizados para avaliar e confirmar o comportamento, durabilidade e segurança destes cabos. Porém, poucas informações estão disponíveis na literatura, a respeito do real comportamento de cabos que estiveram ancorados no ambiente marinho, por diferentes períodos de tempo. Dessa forma, esta dissertação tem como objetivo fornecer mais dados, a respeito da variação das propriedades de fibras constituintes de cabos de ancoragem de poliéster. Para tal, foram caracterizadas fibras virgens, fibras ensaiadas mecanicamente para controle de qualidade e fibras de cabos submersos por 3,5 e 7,0 anos. Os ensaios e as análises apresentados foram realizados para avaliar propriedades óticas (cor, brilho e opacidade), físicas (densidade linear e morfologia), térmicas (grau de cristalinidade, estabilidade térmica, etc.), químicas (composição), mecânicas (alongamento, tenacidade, módulo inicial e força de ruptura) e reológicas (viscosidade e massa molar) dos filamentos. Baseado nos resultados obtidos, pode se verificar alteração na cor (amarelamento) e aumento do brilho, opacidade, estabilidade térmica, grau de cristalinidade, viscosidade e da massa molar dos filamentos ancorados por longos períodos de tempo. Entretanto, embora haja vestígios de degradação nestas fibras, não se observou variação significativa na força necessária para rompê-las. Contudo, estas apresentaram um menor módulo inicial, alongamento e tenacidade de ruptura. / With the advent of floating platforms arranged on water in deeper depths, the development of lighter, durable and economically viable mooring lines, were and have been developed, being the polymeric materials the most promising. The polyester, due to an excellent combination of properties (density, chemical resistance, durability, strength, cost, etc.), has been considered as the best option for depths up to 2,000 meters. However, the use of polymeric cables is a relatively new technology, since the first installations performed by Petrobras took place in 1997. Since then, many simulations and tests were performed to evaluate and confirm the performance, durability and safety of such cables. Nevertheless, few information are available in the literature regarding the actual behavior of cables, that were anchored in the marine environment, for different periods of time. Thus, this dissertation aims to provide more data about the variation of the properties of fibers, which are the constituent of polyester anchoring cables. In order to achieve the goal of this dissertation, virgin fibers, mechanically tested for quality control and fiber cables submerged by 3.5 and 7.0 years were characterized. Tests and analyzes presented were conducted to evaluate optical properties (color, brightness and opacity), physical (linear density and morphology), thermal (degree of crystallinity, thermal stability, etc.), chemical (composition), mechanical (stretching, tenacity, initial modulus and breaking strength) and rheological properties (viscosity and molar mass) of filaments. Based on the obtained results, it was possible observe change in color, brightness, opacity, thermal stability, degree of crystallinity, viscosity and molar mass of filaments. However, although there are traces of degradation in the fibers, no significant variation was observed in the force required to break them. On the other hand, the fibers had a lower initial modulus, breaking elongation and toughness.

Com o advento de plataformas flutuantes dispostas em laminas d’água, cada vez mais profundas, o desenvolvimento de linhas de ancoragem mais leves, resistentes e economicamente viáveis, foram e estão sendo desenvolvidas, sendo os materiais poliméricos os mais promissores. O poliéster, pela excelente combinação de propriedades (densidade, resistência química, durabilidade, resistência mecânica, custo, etc.) tem-se mostrado como a melhor opção para profundidades de até 2.000 metros. Entretanto, a utilização de cabos poliméricos é uma tecnologia relativamente nova, pois as primeiras instalações realizadas pela Petrobras iniciaram a partir de 1997. Desde lá, muitos testes e simulações foram realizados para avaliar e confirmar o comportamento, durabilidade e segurança destes cabos. Porém, poucas informações estão disponíveis na literatura, a respeito do real comportamento de cabos que estiveram ancorados no ambiente marinho, por diferentes períodos de tempo. Dessa forma, esta dissertação tem como objetivo fornecer mais dados, a respeito da variação das propriedades de fibras constituintes de cabos de ancoragem de poliéster. Para tal, foram caracterizadas fibras virgens, fibras ensaiadas mecanicamente para controle de qualidade e fibras de cabos submersos por 3,5 e 7,0 anos. Os ensaios e as análises apresentados foram realizados para avaliar propriedades óticas (cor, brilho e opacidade), físicas (densidade linear e morfologia), térmicas (grau de cristalinidade, estabilidade térmica, etc.), químicas (composição), mecânicas (alongamento, tenacidade, módulo inicial e força de ruptura) e reológicas (viscosidade e massa molar) dos filamentos. Baseado nos resultados obtidos, pode se verificar alteração na cor (amarelamento) e aumento do brilho, opacidade, estabilidade térmica, grau de cristalinidade, viscosidade e da massa molar dos filamentos ancorados por longos períodos de tempo. Entretanto, embora haja vestígios de degradação nestas fibras, não se observou variação significativa na força necessária para rompê-las. Contudo, estas apresentaram um menor módulo inicial, alongamento e tenacidade de ruptura. / With the advent of floating platforms arranged on water in deeper depths, the development of lighter, durable and economically viable mooring lines, were and have been developed, being the polymeric materials the most promising. The polyester, due to an excellent combination of properties (density, chemical resistance, durability, strength, cost, etc.), has been considered as the best option for depths up to 2,000 meters. However, the use of polymeric cables is a relatively new technology, since the first installations performed by Petrobras took place in 1997. Since then, many simulations and tests were performed to evaluate and confirm the performance, durability and safety of such cables. Nevertheless, few information are available in the literature regarding the actual behavior of cables, that were anchored in the marine environment, for different periods of time. Thus, this dissertation aims to provide more data about the variation of the properties of fibers, which are the constituent of polyester anchoring cables. In order to achieve the goal of this dissertation, virgin fibers, mechanically tested for quality control and fiber cables submerged by 3.5 and 7.0 years were characterized. Tests and analyzes presented were conducted to evaluate optical properties (color, brightness and opacity), physical (linear density and morphology), thermal (degree of crystallinity, thermal stability, etc.), chemical (composition), mechanical (stretching, tenacity, initial modulus and breaking strength) and rheological properties (viscosity and molar mass) of filaments. Based on the obtained results, it was possible observe change in color, brightness, opacity, thermal stability, degree of crystallinity, viscosity and molar mass of filaments. However, although there are traces of degradation in the fibers, no significant variation was observed in the force required to break them. On the other hand, the fibers had a lower initial modulus, breaking elongation and toughness.

Com o advento de plataformas flutuantes dispostas em laminas d’água, cada vez mais profundas, o desenvolvimento de linhas de ancoragem mais leves, resistentes e economicamente viáveis, foram e estão sendo desenvolvidas, sendo os materiais poliméricos os mais promissores. O poliéster, pela excelente combinação de propriedades (densidade, resistência química, durabilidade, resistência mecânica, custo, etc.) tem-se mostrado como a melhor opção para profundidades de até 2.000 metros. Entretanto, a utilização de cabos poliméricos é uma tecnologia relativamente nova, pois as primeiras instalações realizadas pela Petrobras iniciaram a partir de 1997. Desde lá, muitos testes e simulações foram realizados para avaliar e confirmar o comportamento, durabilidade e segurança destes cabos. Porém, poucas informações estão disponíveis na literatura, a respeito do real comportamento de cabos que estiveram ancorados no ambiente marinho, por diferentes períodos de tempo. Dessa forma, esta dissertação tem como objetivo fornecer mais dados, a respeito da variação das propriedades de fibras constituintes de cabos de ancoragem de poliéster. Para tal, foram caracterizadas fibras virgens, fibras ensaiadas mecanicamente para controle de qualidade e fibras de cabos submersos por 3,5 e 7,0 anos. Os ensaios e as análises apresentados foram realizados para avaliar propriedades óticas (cor, brilho e opacidade), físicas (densidade linear e morfologia), térmicas (grau de cristalinidade, estabilidade térmica, etc.), químicas (composição), mecânicas (alongamento, tenacidade, módulo inicial e força de ruptura) e reológicas (viscosidade e massa molar) dos filamentos. Baseado nos resultados obtidos, pode se verificar alteração na cor (amarelamento) e aumento do brilho, opacidade, estabilidade térmica, grau de cristalinidade, viscosidade e da massa molar dos filamentos ancorados por longos períodos de tempo. Entretanto, embora haja vestígios de degradação nestas fibras, não se observou variação significativa na força necessária para rompê-las. Contudo, estas apresentaram um menor módulo inicial, alongamento e tenacidade de ruptura. / With the advent of floating platforms arranged on water in deeper depths, the development of lighter, durable and economically viable mooring lines, were and have been developed, being the polymeric materials the most promising. The polyester, due to an excellent combination of properties (density, chemical resistance, durability, strength, cost, etc.), has been considered as the best option for depths up to 2,000 meters. However, the use of polymeric cables is a relatively new technology, since the first installations performed by Petrobras took place in 1997. Since then, many simulations and tests were performed to evaluate and confirm the performance, durability and safety of such cables. Nevertheless, few information are available in the literature regarding the actual behavior of cables, that were anchored in the marine environment, for different periods of time. Thus, this dissertation aims to provide more data about the variation of the properties of fibers, which are the constituent of polyester anchoring cables. In order to achieve the goal of this dissertation, virgin fibers, mechanically tested for quality control and fiber cables submerged by 3.5 and 7.0 years were characterized. Tests and analyzes presented were conducted to evaluate optical properties (color, brightness and opacity), physical (linear density and morphology), thermal (degree of crystallinity, thermal stability, etc.), chemical (composition), mechanical (stretching, tenacity, initial modulus and breaking strength) and rheological properties (viscosity and molar mass) of filaments. Based on the obtained results, it was possible observe change in color, brightness, opacity, thermal stability, degree of crystallinity, viscosity and molar mass of filaments. However, although there are traces of degradation in the fibers, no significant variation was observed in the force required to break them. On the other hand, the fibers had a lower initial modulus, breaking elongation and toughness.

RESUME A partir de lanalyse des incidents des FSOs de type CALM Soft Yoke de Vietsovpetro aux gisements White Tiger (Tigre Blanc) et Dragon, on saperçoit du besoin de développer des structures offshore (y compris les FPSOs) installées et opérées «en sécurité» dans les conditions spéciales des états de mer du Vietnam, où apparaissent de nombreux vents violents et de fréquents typhons tropicaux. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, une recherche générale sur les systèmes dancrage des FPSO a été réalisée en considérant divers problèmes : efforts hydrodynamiques du second ordre, réponses dynamiques aléatoires des systèmes dancrage des FPSO, analyses du dommage de fatigue aléatoire et estimation de la durée de vie des lignes dancrage. Plus spécialement, une étude plus approfondie avec un nouveau concept a été proposée pour estimer la fiabilité totale dun système de lignes d'ancrage des FSPO. La fiabilité totale a été déterminée selon les conditions de mer extrêmes (ULS), elle diminue avec le temps à cause de la prise en compte de l'accumulation du dommage en fatigue des lignes d'ancrage (FLS). Dans la dernière part de thèse, cette méthode a été appliquée aux conditions de mer sévères du Vietnam, surtout dans les états limites extrêmes, prenant en compte l'accumulation du dommage en fatigue. En application numérique, deux FSOs existants au Vietnam ont été analysés. Le contenu principal des études de la thèse a également contribué à réaliser un Projet National de Recherche du Vietnam (intitulé code KC.09.15/06-10), dont lun des membres est lauteur de cette thèse./ ABSTRACT From analyzing incidents of the CALM Yoke FSOs of Vietsovpetro in the White Tiger and Dragon fields, we can identify the need to develop offshore structures (including FPSO) installed and operated in safety in most severe Vietnamese sea states, with many and frequent strong winds and tropical typhoons. In this thesis, a general research on the FPSO mooring systems has been carried out by considering various problems: second order hydrodynamic efforts, random dynamic responses of the FPSO mooring systems, analyzing random damage of fatigue and estimating the durability of the mooring lines. In particular, a thorough study with a new concept was proposed to estimate the total reliability of FSPO mooring line systems. The total reliability was estimated for extreme sea conditions (ULS), which decreases with the time due to the accumulation of the damage by fatigue of the moorings lines (FLS). In the last part of thesis, this method was applied to the severe sea conditions of Vietnam, especially considering the ultimate limit states and taking into account the accumulation of the fatigue damage. For numerical application, two FSOs existing now in Vietnam were analyzed. The main studies in this thesis have also contributed to develop a National Research Project in Vietnam (entitled code KC.09.15/06-10), in which the author acts as a research team member.

Submitted by Biblioteca de Pós-Graduação em Geoquímica BGQ (bgq@ndc.uff.br) on 2017-05-12T17:27:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 COMPOSIÇÃO BIOGÊNICA E FLUXOS DO MATERIAL PARTICULADO NA PLATAFORMA CONTINENTAL DE CABO FRIO, BRASIL EXPERIMENTOS COM ARMADILHAS DE SEDIMENTOS DURANTE FUNDEIOS DA PRIMAVERA DE 2010 E OUTONO DE 2011.pdf: 4380478 bytes, checksum: a9469131095e97d77020eb0a649c8509 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-12T17:27:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 COMPOSIÇÃO BIOGÊNICA E FLUXOS DO MATERIAL PARTICULADO NA PLATAFORMA CONTINENTAL DE CABO FRIO, BRASIL EXPERIMENTOS COM ARMADILHAS DE SEDIMENTOS DURANTE FUNDEIOS DA PRIMAVERA DE 2010 E OUTONO DE 2011.pdf: 4380478 bytes, checksum: a9469131095e97d77020eb0a649c8509 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Universidade Federal Fluminense. Instituto de Química. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Geoquímica, Niterói, RJ / O sistema de ressurgência de Cabo Frio (SRCF) é reconhecido como uma das áreas mais produtivas do leste da costa sul - americana, embora o papel do aporte continental como fertilizador das águas da plataforma continental tem sido negligenciado. Este estudo r elata dois experimentos de armadilhas de sedimentos localizados a - 50 m de profundidade (AS) e a - 100 m (AF) sobre a plataforma continental de Cabo Frio (profundidade local - 140 m, 23◦ 36' S - 041◦ 34' O). As armadilhas foram programadas para capturar mate rial particulado durante o processo de sedimentação em dois experimentos distintos, o primeiro no final da primavera de 2010 (por um período de 45 dias com 3 dias de integração para cada garrafa) e no outono de 2011 (por um período de 90 dias com 7 dias de integração para cada garrafa). Neste estudo são abordados os fluxos e a composição biogênica do material particulado (carbono orgânico, nitrogênio, δ 13 C e δ 15 N determinada por EA - IRMS), em conjunto com atribuições de sua provável origem. O fluxo de massa total capturado pelas armadilhas variou amplamente (1,06 - 52,7 mg.m - 2 .dia - 1 ). O fluxo de carbono orgânico particulado mostrou flutuações menores (0,33 - 5,37mgOC.m - 2 .dia - 1 ) onde os fluxos médios foram maiores para as armadilhas de fundo. Os resultados das correlações entre fatores isolados, tais como temperatura, divergência dos ventos, escoamento perpendicular e paralelo, e o fluxo de massa total não foram significativos, o que sugere que o fluxo de partículas não poderia ser explicado pelo controle de um único fator, mas pela interação de eventos na plataforma continental. Os resultados também indicam um forte componente de transporte advectivo na plataforma continental e, que as partículas capturadas pelas armadilhas em Cabo Frio são derivadas de uma mis tura de fontes que são influenciadas por múltiplos processos físico - químicos e oceanográficos. Partículas de origem marinha foram capturadas durante a maior parte do tempo, mas com contribuição de material continental, especialmente na armadilha do fundo, sugerindo uma possível origem em processos de sedimentação e ressuspensão de material continental na plataforma continental, provavelmente produto da degradação costeira ou de aportes fluviais. Desta forma o SRCF é um sistema altamente dinâmico e compartim entalizado, onde a formação, transporte e a dispersão de partículas são controlados por múltiplos processos onde o aporte continental desempenha um importante papel / ABSTRACT The Cabo Frio upwelling system (SRCF) is recognized as one of the more productive area of the Eastern South America n coast, although the role of the continental contribution as wate r fertilizer of the shelf has been neglected. This study reports two experiments of sediment traps positioned at 50 m (AS) and 100 m (AF) depth over the continental shelf of Cabo Frio ( local depth 140 m , 23 ◦ 36 ' S - 041 ◦ 34 ' W). The traps were scheduled to capture particulate matter during the sedim entation process in two experiments , the first in the late spring of 2010 (for a period of 45 days with 3 days of integration for each bottle ) and t he second in autumn of 2011 (for a period of 90 days with 7 days of integration for each bottle ). This work addresses the flux and the composition of biogenic particulate matter (organic carbon, nitrogen, δ 13 C and δ 15 N determined by EA - IRMS) with the attributes of their possible origin . The total mass flux captured by the traps varied widely (1.06 - 52.7 mg. m - 2 . day - 1 ). The flux of particulate organic carbon showed smaller fluctuations (0.33 - 5, 37mgOC. m - 2 . day - 1 ), where the mean flux at the bottom sediment traps was higher . The results of the correlations between isolated factors, such as temperature, divergent winds, cross - shelf and long - shelf flux, and the total mass fl ux were non significant, suggesting that the fl ux of particles could not be explained by the control of a singl e factor but b y the interaction of events on the continental shelf. P articles with m arine origin were captured during most of the time, but with the con tribution of continental material especially at the bottom trap, suggesting a possible origin in the sedimentation and res s uspension processes of contine ntal material in the shelf, probably the product of coastal degradation or river inputs. Thus , the SRCF is a highly dynamic and compartmentalized system , where the formation, transpor t and dispersion of particles are contr olled by multiple processes where continental input play an important role