This thesis presents the development of calibration and data-reduction algorithms for non-conventional multi-hole pressure probes. The algorithms that have been developed for conventional 5- and 7-hole probes are not optimal for probes with port arrangements (on the probe tip) that are non-conventional. Conventional algorithms utilize the axisymmetry of the port distribution pattern to define the non-dimensional pressure coefficients. These coefficients are typically defined specifically for these patterns, but fail to correctly represent different patterns of port arrangements, such as patterns without axisymmetry or regularity. The algorithms introduced herein can handle any pattern of port arrangement, from axisymmetric and regular to random. Moreover, they eliminate the need to separate the measurement domain of a probe to "low-angle" and "high-angle" regimes, typical in conventional 5- and 7-hole-probe algorithms that require two different sets of pressure coefficient definitions and procedures. Additionally, the algorithms have been formulated such that they facilitate redundancy implementations, especially in applications where such redundancy is important, such as air-data systems. The developed algorithms are first applied to a non-conventional probe, a nearly omni-directional 18-hole probe, and demonstrate very high flow measurement accuracy. Subsequently, the algorithms were applied to a new 12-hole, nearly omni-directional, flow velocity measurement probe capable of measuring reversed flows. The new 12-hole design offers several advantages over a previously developed, 18-hole, nearly omni-directional probe. The probe is optimized in the sense that, regardless of the flow direction, it allows calculation of the 4 unknown flow quantities, i.e. the two flow angles, the velocity magnitude and the static pressure, with the minimum necessary number of holes/ports on the probe tip. This probe also has a non-conventional arrangement of its pressure ports and therefore the new calibration and data-reduction algorithms can be effectively employed. With theoretically generated pressure data for the 12-hole probe, the coefficient definitions are analyzed and found to be well-behaved.

This thesis presents the development of calibration and data-reduction algorithms for non-conventional multi-hole pressure probes. The algorithms that have been developed for conventional 5- and 7-hole probes are not optimal for probes with port arrangements (on the probe tip) that are non-conventional. Conventional algorithms utilize the axisymmetry of the port distribution pattern to define the non-dimensional pressure coefficients. These coefficients are typically defined specifically for these patterns, but fail to correctly represent different patterns of port arrangements, such as patterns without axisymmetry or regularity. The algorithms introduced herein can handle any pattern of port arrangement, from axisymmetric and regular to random. Moreover, they eliminate the need to separate the measurement domain of a probe to "low-angle" and "high-angle" regimes, typical in conventional 5- and 7-hole-probe algorithms that require two different sets of pressure coefficient definitions and procedures. Additionally, the algorithms have been formulated such that they facilitate redundancy implementations, especially in applications where such redundancy is important, such as air-data systems. The developed algorithms are first applied to a non-conventional probe, a nearly omni-directional 18-hole probe, and demonstrate very high flow measurement accuracy. Subsequently, the algorithms were applied to a new 12-hole, nearly omni-directional, flow velocity measurement probe capable of measuring reversed flows. The new 12-hole design offers several advantages over a previously developed, 18-hole, nearly omni-directional probe. The probe is optimized in the sense that, regardless of the flow direction, it allows calculation of the 4 unknown flow quantities, i.e. the two flow angles, the velocity magnitude and the static pressure, with the minimum necessary number of holes/ports on the probe tip. This probe also has a non-conventional arrangement of its pressure ports and therefore the new calibration and data-reduction algorithms can be effectively employed. With theoretically generated pressure data for the 12-hole probe, the coefficient definitions are analyzed and found to be well-behaved.

No description available.

Efforts to improve diesel fuel sprays have led to a significant increase in fuel injection pressures and a reduction in nozzle-hole diameters. Under these conditions, the likelihood for the internal nozzle flow to cavitate is increased, which potentially affects spray breakup and atomisation, but also increases the risk of causing cavitation damage to the injector. This thesis describes the study of cavitating flow phenomena in various single and multi-hole optical nozzle geometries. It includes the design and development of a high-pressure optical fuel injector test facility with which the cavitating flows were observed. Experiments were undertaken using real-scale optical diesel injector nozzles at fuel injection pressures up to 2050 bar, observing for the first time the characteristics of the internal nozzle-flow under realistic fuel injection conditions. High-speed video and high resolution photography, using laser illumination sources, were used to capture the cavitating flow in the nozzle-holes and sac volume of the optical nozzles, which contained holes ranging in size from 110 micrometers to 300 micrometers. Geometric cavitation in the nozzle-holes and string cavitation formation in the nozzle-holes and sac volume were both observed using transient and steady-state injection conditions; injecting into gaseous and liquid back pressures up to 150 bar. Results obtained have shown that cavitation strings observed at realistic fuel injection pressures exhibit the same physical characteristics as those observed at lower pressures. The formation of string cavitation was observed in the 300 micrometers multi-hole nozzle geometries, exhibiting a mutual dependence on nozzle flow-rate and the geometry of the nozzle-holes. Pressure changes, caused by localised turbulent perturbations in the sac volume and transient fuel injection characteristics, independently affected the geometric and string cavitation formation in each of the holes. String cavitation formation of was shown to occur when free-stream vapour was entrained into the low pressure core of a sufficiently intense coherent vortex. Hole diameters less than or equal to 160 micrometers were found to suppress string cavitation formation, with this effect a result of the reduced nozzle flow rate and vortex intensity. Using different hole spacing geometries, it was demonstrated that the formation of cavitation strings in a particular geometry became independent of fuel injection and back pressure once a threshold pressure drop across the nozzle had been reached.

Political, environmental and marketing factors mean there is a global requirement to produce vehicles with improved fuel economy and reduced emissions. This thesis shows that the gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine will continue to form a significant portion of the automotive propulsion market in the short to medium term. However, to reach future targets continuous development and optimisation of these engines is essential. The introduction to this thesis discusses the role some of the key aspects of GDI engine design have on overall engine efficiency. The fuel spray is shown to be a key contributor to this, as it is a primary driver in the fuel/air mixing process, and therefore intrinsically linked to the combustion efficiency.

Stirring tanks are very important equipments used for mixing, separating, chemical reaction, etc. A typical stirring tank is a cylindrical vessel with an agitator driving the fluid and generating turbulence to promote mixing. Flotation cells are widely used stirring tanks in phase separation where multiphase flow is involved. Flotation refers to the process in which air bubbles selectively pick up hydrophobic particles and separate them from hydrophilic solids. This technology is used throughout the mining industry as well as the chemical and petroleum industries. In this research, efforts were made to investigate the multi-phase flow hydrodynamic problems of some flotation cells at different geometrical scales. Pitot-static and five-hope probes were employed to lab- pilot- and commercial-scale tanks for velocity measurements. It was found that the tanks with different scales have similar flow patterns over a range of Reynolds numbers. Based on the velocity measurement results, flotation tanks' performance was evaluated by checking the active volume in the bulk. A fast-response five-hole probe was designed and fabricated to study the turbulence characteristics in flotation cells under single- and multi-phase flow conditions. The jet stream in the rotor-stator domain has much higher turbulence intensity compared with other locations. The turbulent dissipation rate (TDR) in the rotor-stator domain is around 20 times higher than that near tank's wall. The TDR could be used to calculate the bubble and particle slip velocities. An isokinetic sampling probe system was developed to obtain true samples inthe multi-phase flow and then measure the local void fraction. It was found that the air bubbles are carried out by the stream and dispersed to the whole bulk. However, some of the bubbles accumulate in the inactive regions, where higher void fractions were detected. The isokinetic sampling probe was then extended to be an isokinetic borescope system, which was used to detect the bubble-particle aggregates in the tank. Aggregates were found in the high-turbulence level zones. The isokinetic sampling probe and the isokinetic borescope provide new methods for flotation tank tests. An experiment was also set up to study the dynamics of bubble particle impact. Four different modes were found for the collision. The criterion is that if the fluid drainage time is less than the residence time, the attachment will occur, otherwise, the particle will bounce back. / Ph. D.

This work presents the experimental study of the flow generated in the wakes of three three-dimensional bumps in the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel. The three bumps examined are named bump 1, small bump 3, and large bump 3, and are the same test cases studied by Byun et al. (2004) and Ma and Simpson (2004) with a LDV system and a quad-wire hot-wire probe, respectively. Various experimental methods are used in this work: For measuring the mean velocity component in the planes examined, a seven-hole pressure probe is used with the data reduction algorithm developed by Johansen et al. (2001). A sixteen-hole pressure rake is used for boundary layer data on the sidewalls and ceiling of the test section and a Pitot-static probe is used to obtain mean velocity magnitude in the centerline of the test section. Specific techniques are developed to minimize the uncertainties due to the apparatus used, and an uncertainty analysis is used to confirm the efficiency of these techniques. Measurements in the wake of bump 1 reveal a strong streamwise vorticity creating large amounts of high moment fluid entrained close to the wall. In the wake of small bump 3, the amount of high momentum fluid entrained close to the wall is small as well as the streamwise vorticity. The flow in the wake of large bump 3 incorporate the characteristics of the two previous bumps by having a relatively large entrainment of high momentum fluid close to the wall and a low generation of streamwise vorticity. In the wakes of the three bumps, a pair of counter rotating vortices is created. The influence of large bump 3 on the incoming flow-field is found to be significant and induces an increase of the boundary layer thickness. By comparing LDV data and quad-wire hot-wire data with seven-hole probe data in the wakes of the bumps at the same locations, it is shown that uncertainties defined for a quasi-steady, non-turbulent flow-field without velocity gradient are bad indicators of the magnitude of the uncertainties in a more complex flow-field. A theoretical framework is discussed to understand the effects of the velocity gradient and of turbulence on the pressures measured by the seven-hole probe. In this fashion, a model is proposed and validated to explain these effects. It is observed that the main contribution to the uncertainties in seven-hole probe measurements due to the velocity gradient and to the turbulence comes from the velocity gradient. To correct for the effects of the velocity gradient on seven-hole probe measurements in an unknown flow-field, a technique is proposed. Using an estimation of the velocity gradient calculated from the seven-hole probe, the proposed model could be used to re-evaluate non-dimensional pressure coefficients used in the data reduction algorithm therefore correcting for the effects of the velocity gradient on seven-hole probe measurements. / Master of Science

A drag study was conducted on an oblate ellipsoid body in the Virginia Tech Stability Wind Tunnel. Two-dimensional wake surveys were taken with a seven-hole probe and an integral momentum method was applied to the results to calculate the drag on the body. Several different model configurations were tested; these included the model oriented at a 0° and 10° angle of attack with respect to the oncoming flow. For both angles, the model was tested with and without flow trip strips. At the 0° angle of attack orientation, data were taken at a speed of 44 m/s. Data with the model at a 10° angle of attack were taken at 44 m/s and 16 m/s. The high speed flow corresponded to a length-based Reynolds number of about 4.3 million; the low speed flow gave a Reynolds number of about 1.6 million. The results indicated that the length-squared drag coefficients ranged from around 0.0026 for the 0° angle of attack test cases and 0.0035 for the 10° angle of attack test cases. The 10° angle of attack cases had higher drag due to the increase in the frontal profile area of the model and the addition of induced drag. The flow trip strips appeared to have a tiny effect on the drag; a slight increase in drag coefficient was seen by their application but it was not outside of the uncertainty in the calculation. At the lower speed, uncertainties in the calculation were so high that the drag results could not be considered with much confidence, but the drag coefficient did decrease from the higher Reynolds number cases. Uncertainty in the drag calculations derived primarily from spatial fluctuations of the mean velocity and total pressure in the wake profile; uncertainty was estimated to be about 16% or less for the 44 m/s test cases. / Master of Science

Afin de se rapprocher des conditions du mélange homogène du moteur essence, plusieurs fluides sont injectés dans l'atmosphère à une pression amont et une température variées. Cinq prototypes d'injecteurs réels trois-trous de Continental ont été utilisés. En augmentant la pression d'injection, l'écoulement passe par quatre régimes où le niveau de développement de cavitation varie. Le coefficient de décharge Cd dépend essentiellement du nombre de cavitation. Au point critique de cavitation, deux corrélations ont été obtenues reliant respectivement Cd et le nombre de cavitation critique au nombre de Reynolds correspondant. Le jet en champ proche est gouverné par trois nombres sans dimensions : celui de Weber, de Reynolds et de cavitation. L'effet de chacun d'eux sur l'angle du jet à la sortie a été obtenu. La comparaison des résultats entre deux injecteurs a montré que le rapport entre la longueur et le diamètre de l'orifice est d'une influence d'ordre 1 sur l'angle du jet. / In order to get closer to the homogeneous mixture conditions of a gasoline engine, different fluids are injected into the atmosphere at varying upstream pressure and temperature. Five three-hole real injector prototypes from Continental were used. When injection pressure is increased, the internal flow goes through four regimes where the cavitation development level varies from one to another. The discharge coefficient Cd was found mainly dependent on the cavitation number. At the cavitation critical point, two correlations between Cd and the critical cavitation number on one side respectively, and the correspondent Reynolds number on the other side were found. The near field jet is ruled by three dimensionless numbers : Weber, Reynolds and cavitation. The effect of each one of them on the jet angle at the orifice outlet was obtained. By comparing the results of two injectors, it was found that the length over diameter ratio has a first order influence on the jet angle.

En la exploración de nuevos métodos para el mejoramiento de la eficiencia y rendimiento del motor diésel, es claro que un gran esfuerzo debe estar enfocado en el proceso de inyección de combustible. La eficiencia de la combustión y las emisiones, se ven muy afectadas por el proceso de atomización, y se ha demostrado que incrementos en presiones de inyección conllevan un gran potencial para mejorar el ahorro de combustible, producir mejores mezclas de aire y combustible, y por tanto menor generación de emisiones contaminantes. Últimamente, las presiones de inyección han aumentado de alrededor de 50 MPa en los años 70 hasta 250 MPa en los días actuales. Presiones de inyección muy altas (250-300 MPa) o incluso ultra altas (> 300 MPa) vienen siendo materia de investigación con el fin de ser implementadas de manera comercial en un futuro próximo. La estructura y desarrollo del spray diésel pueden ser caracterizados desde un punto de vista microscópico por medio de la medición del tamaño de gotas del spray y sus velocidades. En condiciones no-evaporativas, técnicas como el PDPA (Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer) vienen siendo utilizadas para la obtención de perfiles de diámetros y velocidades de gota con una alta resolución temporal. Desde el punto de vista macroscópico, existen parámetros específicos que permiten caracterizar a un chorro diésel, estos son: la penetración de vapor y líquida junto con el ángulo de apertura del chorro. La penetración líquida es un indicador claro de la capacidad de evaporación del combustible utilizado, mientras que la penetración de vapor, por su parte, es indicativo del proceso de mezcla y la probabilidad de colisión con las paredes de la cámara de combustión; factores claves a la hora de la generación de emisiones contaminantes. En esta tesis se estudia la influencia de presiones bajas, medias y muy altas presiones inyección, sobre un amplio espectro de condiciones y diagnósticos experimentales, y desde el punto de vista macroscópico y microscópico. Se realizaron experimentos para tres diferentes inyectores, 2 solenoides y un piezo eléctrico, este último con la capacidad de alcanzar presiones de inyección cercanas a 270 MPa. Las medidas incluyen una caracterización hidráulica, compuesta por tasa de inyección; una visualización de alta velocidad del chorro líquido isotermo; una visualización de alta velocidad del chorro inerte evaporativo, con captura simultánea de las fases líquida y vapor; y finalmente, una caracterización microscópica por medio de la obtención de distribución de tamaño de gotas y sus velocidades. Con respecto a los ensayos microscópicos, se desarrolló una metodología para el aislamiento y alineación de sprays con un error de medición muy bajo de 0,22°. Se llevaron a cabo mediciones de velocidad de gotas, cuyos resultados mostraron buen ajuste con perfiles teóricos de velocidad. De igual manera, una correlación para el tamaño de gota SMD se obtuvo mostrando un alto nivel de ajuste y siendo representativa para todo el rango de presiones de inyección estudiados. En el caso de la caracterización macroscópica del chorro isotermo, se han detectado variaciones macroscópicas en el desarrollo del chorro con propiedades de gas, inclusive en condiciones de motor comunes. Para estimar estos efectos y otros que las presiones de inyección muy altas tendrían sobre la estructura del chorro, se incentivó la aparición de ondas de choque controlando la velocidad del sonido del ambiente. Se usaron tres gases ambientales (SF6 N2 y CO2) con diferentes velocidades de sonido, promoviendo de esta manera chorros supersónicos en determinados casos. Al comparar ensayos con mismas densidades y diferentes gases ambientales, se encontró que todas las tendencias cercanas al estado transónico (0.8 <M <1.2) tenían una mayor penetración y menor ángulo de chorro. / En l'exploració de nous mètodes per al millorament de l'eficiència i rendiment del motor dièsel, és clar que un gran esforç s'ha enfocar en el procés d'injecció de combustible. L'eficiència de la combustió i les emissions, es veuen molt afectades pel procés d'atomització, i s'ha demostrat que increments en pressions d'injecció comporten un gran potencial per a millorar l'estalvi de combustible, produir millors mescles d'aire i combustible, i per tant menor generació d'emissions contaminants. Últimament, les pressions d'injecció han augmentat d'al voltant de 50 MPa en els anys 70 fins a 250 MPa en els dies actuals. Pressions d'injecció molt altes (250-300 MPa) o inclús ultra altes (> 300 MPa) vénen sent matèria d'investigació a fi de ser implementades de manera comercial en un futur pròxim. L'estructura i desenrotllament de l'esprai dièsel poden ser caracteritzats des d'un punt de vista microscòpic per mitjà del mesurament de la grandària de gotes de l'esprai i les seues velocitats. En condicions no-evaporatives, tècniques com el PDPA (Phase doppler particle analyzer) vénen sent utilitzades per a l'obtenció de perfils de diàmetres i velocitats de gota amb una alta resolució temporal. Des del punt de vista macroscòpic, hi ha paràmetres específics que permeten caracteritzar a un doll dièsel, estos són: la penetració de vapor i la penetració líquida junt amb l'angle d'obertura del doll. La penetració líquida és un indicador clar de la capacitat d'evaporació del combustible utilitzat, mentres que la penetració de vapor, per la seua banda, és indicatiu del procés de mescla i la probabilitat de col·lisió amb les parets de la cambra de combustió; factors claus a l'hora de la generació d'emissions contaminants. En esta tesi s'estudia la influència de pressions d' injecció baixes, mitges i molt altes, sobre un ampli espectre de condicions i diagnòstics experimentals, i des del punt de vista macroscòpic i microscòpic. Es van realitzar experiments per a tres injectors diferents, 2 solenoides i un piezo elèctric, este últim amb la capacitat d'aconseguir pressions d'injecció pròximes a 270 MPa. Les medides inclouen una caracterització hidràulica, composta per taxa d'injecció; una visualització d'alta velocitat del doll líquid isoterm; una visualització d'alta velocitat del doll inert evaporativo, amb captura simultània de les fases líquida i vapor; i finalment, una caracterització microscòpica per mitjà de l'obtenció de distribució de grandària de gotes i les seues velocitats. Respecte als assajos microscòpics, es va desenrotllar una metodologia per a l'aïllament i alineació d'esprais amb un error de mesurament molt davall de 0,22°. Es van dur a terme mesuraments de velocitat de gotes, els resultats van mostrar bon ajust amb perfils teòrics de velocitat. De la mateixa manera, una correlació per a la grandària de gota SMD es va obtindre mostrant un alt nivell d'ajust i sent representativa per a tot el rang de pressions d'injecció estudiats. En el cas de la caracterització macroscòpica del doll isoterm, s'han detectat variacions macroscòpiques en el desenrotllament del doll amb propietats de gas, inclusivament en condicions de motor comú. Per a estimar estos efectes i altres que altes pressions d'injecció tindrien sobre l'estructura del doll, es va incentivar l'aparició d'ones de xoc controlant la velocitat del so de l'ambient. Es van usar tres gasos ambientals (SF6, N2 i CO2) amb diferents velocitats de so, promovent d'esta manera dolls supersònics en determinats casos. Al comparar assajos amb mateixes densitats i diferents gasos ambientals, es va trobar que totes les tendències pròximes a l'estat transónic (0.8 < M < 1.2) tenien una major penetració i menor angle de doll. Respecte al doll evaporatiu, per a pressions d'injecció molt altes com 270MPa, els efectes dels paràmetres ambientals i d'injecció van romandre iguals respecte a totes les carac / In the exploration of new methods for improving the efficiency and performance of the diesel engine, it is clear that a great effort should be focused on the fuel injection process. The efficiency of combustion and emissions are greatly affected by the atomization process, and it is considered that injection pressures increments have a great potential to improve fuel economy, produce better air and fuel mixtures, and thus low generation of polluting emissions. Lately, injection pressures have increased from around 50 MPa in the 70's to 250 MPa in the current days, even very high injection pressures (250-300 MPa) or ultra high pressures (> 300 MPa) have been the subject of the scientific community in order to be implemented in future injection systems. The structure and development of the diesel spray can be characterized from a microscopic point of view by means of estimation of droplets size and velocities. At non-evaporative conditions, techniques such as PDPA (Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer) are being used to obtain diameters and velocity profiles a with high temporal resolution. From the macroscopic point of view, there are specific parameters that allow characterizing the diesel spray, these are: the liquid and vapor penetration along with the spray angle. The liquid penetration is a clear indicator of the evaporation capacity of the fuel used, whilst the vapor penetration, on the other hand, is an indicative of the mixing process and the probability of collision with the combustion chamber walls; key factors when generating polluting emissions. In this thesis the influence of low and very high injections pressures over the macro and micro characteristics of the diesel spray is studied, over a wide spectrum of conditions and experimental diagnoses. Experiments were carried out for three different injectors, two solenoids and one piezoelectric, the latter with the capacity to reach injection pressures close to 270MPa. The measurements include a hydraulic characterization; a high speed visualization of the liquid spray at isothermal conditions; a high-speed visualization of the evaporative spray, with simultaneous capture of the liquid and vapor phases; and finally, a microscopic characterization. Regarding the microscopic tests, a methodology was developed for the spray isolation and alignment with a very low measurement error of 0.22° Droplets velocity measurements were carried out, the results showed good adjustment with theoretical velocity profiles. Similarly, a correlation for SMD droplet size was obtained showing a high level of adjustment and being representative for the entire range of injection pressures studied. In the case of the macroscopic characterization of the isothermal spray, variations have been detected in the development of the jet with gas properties, even at common engine injection conditions. To estimate these effects and others that very high injection pressures would have on the spray structure, the apparition of shock waves was enhanced by controlling the speed of sound of the environment using three ambient gases with different speed of sound (SF6, N2 and CO2). When comparing tests with same densities and different ambient gases, it was found that all the tendencies near the transonic state (0.8 <M <1.2) had a higher penetration and lower spray angle. With respect to the evaporative jet, for very high injection pressures like 270MPa, the effects of the environmental and injection parameters remained the same with respect to all the macroscopic characteristics. / Giraldo Valderrama, JS. (2018). Macroscopic and microscopic characterization of non-reacting diesel sprays at low and very high injection pressures [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/113643 / TESIS