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Results from direct numerical simulations (DNS) of multiphase bubbly flows in vertical and horizontal channels were compared to averaged models of multiphase flows (two-fluid model etc.). The data from the direct numerical simulation were also used to calibrate and improve the averaged models. Steady state laminar flow in a vertical channel was analyzed first. Results from direct numerical simulations are compared with prediction of the steady-state two-fluid model of Antal, Lahey, and Flaherty (1991). The simulations are done assuming a two-dimensional system and the model coefficients are adjusted slightly to match the data for upflow. The model is then tested by comparisons with different values of flow rate and gravity, as well as down flow. Results agree reasonably in the middle of the channel. However, for upflow, model performs poorly near the no-slip wall. To better understand the flow with rising bubbles hugging the no-slip wall, detailed direct numerical simulations of the problem were performed in three dimensions. Deformability of the bubbles was found to play a significant role in the flow structure and averaged flow rate. Finally, the transient buoyancy driven motion of two-dimensional bubbles across a domain bounded by two horizontal walls is studied by. The bubbles are initially released next to the lower wall and as they rise, they disperse. Eventually all the bubbles collect at the top wall. The goal of the study is to examine how a simple one-dimensional model for the averaged void fraction captures the unsteady bubble motion. By using void fraction dependent velocities, where the exact dependency is obtained from simulations of homogeneous bubbly flows, the overall dispersion of the bubbles is predicted. Significant differences remain, however. Results suggest that bubble dispersion by the bubble induced liquid velocity must be included, and by using a simple model for the bubble dispersion improved agreement is found.

This thesis investigated the heat transfer of internally oil cooled rotors in permanent magnet electric machines which are, among other things, used in hybrid vehicles or zero emission vehicles. The magnets become sensitive and can be demagnetized at high working temperatures, hence the need of cooling. The scope of this work included CFD simulations in STAR-CCM+. Three different 3D multiphase models simulating the oil propagation in the rotor were performed. A Lagrangian multiphase model combined with a fluid film model was the most suitable model for simulating the spray of the oil and the film thickness along the inner rotor wall. It was noticed that periodic boundaries caused problems for the fluid film model, therefore a complete geometry was preferred over a truncated model. The 3D solutions provided thicker film thicknesses than the analytical solutions from the fluid film thickness theory. The maximum analytical thickness was of the same order of magnitude as the surface average film thickness provided by the multiphase models. This thickness was assumed to be constant when used as the base for the fluid region in the 2D one-phase models.The study showed that aluminum was the most suitable rotor material due to its high conductive capacity, which provided a more even distribution of the temperature in the solid and hence resulted in lower overall temperatures. The cooling power increased linearly with the volumetric flow rate, however the heat transfer coefficient decreased for the higher flow rates. A volumetric flow rate of 10dl/min was recommended. A 2D model was compared to a preliminary experiment and showed that these were not correlated. The conclusion was that more experiments and simulations are needed in order to confirm the validity of the 2D model.

Sand transport in hilly terrain geometry is different and complex to understand compared to horizontal pipeline, due to the influence of the geometry that greatly affect multiphase flow and sand behaviour at the dip. The overall aim of this research work is to use experimental method to investigate the effects of multiphase flow behaviour on sand transport in a dip configuration. Experimental work was carried out to understand the complex dynamic mechanisms that exist during sand multiphase flow using 2” inch dip test facility with different inclination angles of ±24° and ±12° configurations. In order determine the multiphase flow parameters and sand flow regimes, extensive data were collected and analysed from continuous local measurement of instantaneous liquid hold up and sand hold up using conductivity rings. Significant observations were made during this study from which several conclusions were made. In the air–water test, three slug behaviours were observed at the dip: complete stratified flow downhill with slug initiation at dip; stratified flow (with energetic ripple) downhill with slug initiation and slug growth upward dip; and aerated slug downhill and slug growth at the dip. These behaviours are different from published work on this subject with low angle of inclination. The data analysis revealed that the two types of slug initiation mechanisms (wave growth and wave coalescence) observed are geometry specifics. The slug translational velocities (at the dip and uphill section) were used as criterion to determine the flow condition for each slug initiation mechanism at the dip. Significant observations were made during this study from which several conclusions were made. In the air–water test, three slug behaviours were observed at the dip: complete stratified flow downhill with slug initiation at dip; stratified flow (with energetic ripple) downhill with slug initiation and slug growth upward dip; and aerated slug downhill and slug growth at the dip. These behaviours are different from published work on this subject with low angle of inclination. The data analysis revealed that the two types of slug initiation mechanisms (wave growth and wave coalescence) observed are geometry specifics. The slug translational velocities (at the dip and uphill section) were used as criterion to determine the flow condition for each slug initiation mechanism at the dip. Five sand-water flow regimes (full suspension, streak, saltation, sand dune, and sand bed) were established by physical observation and data analysis. It was also observed that sand streaks were denser towards the central line of pipe bottom in the downhill pipe than that in uphill pipe. At downhill pipe section, there were sand gathering toward the central line of the pipe bottom. The characteristics of sand transportation at the dip section were found slightly different from downhill and uphill pipe for higher sand concentrations. When dense streak occurred at the downhill, the sand particles become dispersed at the dip. The minimum transport conditions (MTC) were determined at different sand concentration. The sand minimum transport condition in the dip section was found to be slightly lower than those in the downhill and uphill section. The minimum transport condition for a single phase water flow for the 24˚ dip. test section was slightly higher (with difference of about 0.1m/s) than that of the 12˚ at the downward and upward of the dip section at low sand concentration. In addition, local sand measurements using conductivity time series results at the downhill and uphill section showed the influence of sand concentration and flow condition on sand flow patterns. The air-water-sand results showed that sand deposits occurred in uphill section after sand transport at the downhill and dip sections. This was due to different flow regimes exhibited at the different pipe sections. The stratified (wavy) flow was the dominant flow in downhill pipe; therefore sand was observed transporting within the liquid film as thin streak for most of test conditions. The slug initiation at the dip section was observed to be a major factor that influences the sand behaviour. Sand particles in the slug unit (at the dip and uphill of the pipe) were observed to be entrained in the slug body once slug is initiated, thereby changing the force vector generating turbulence flow at the front of slug body. Once the sand particles entered the film zone of the slug unit, they immediately stopped moving forward due to the film velocity significantly lower than the slug body coupled with gravity effect. . Sand particles were found to be falling back while travelling with the water film at some conditions, until they were picked up by the next slug body. The results of this work provide a better understanding to the study of multiphase flow for pipeline design and most especially sand behaviour at the dip. The sand dune regime is identified distinctively using conductivity ring technique which would assist in determining the operating conditions that allow sand dune formation. The knowledge of flow condition at full suspension of sand is an important parameter to determine the erosion rate over the life span of the pipeline. Also, the quantity of sand bed and flow condition of sand settling at the dip is useful information for production chemist in order to determine the effectiveness of corrosion inhibitor at the bottom of the pipe. In conclusion, sand transport characteristics and MTC were strongly dependent on the gas-liquid flow regime and pipe geometry; and cannot be generalised on the superficial liquid and gas velocities of the transport fluid.

A series of local and bench scale laboratory experiments and bench and field scale numerical simulations were conducted to develop a better understanding of the interrelationship between nonwetting phase (NWP) source zones and downgradient aqueous phase concentrations in saturated porous media contaminated by immiscible organic liquids. Specific emphasis was placed on the factors governing the rate of NWP source zone evolution and the factors governing the rate of mass transfer from the NWP to the aqueous phase. Hysteretic NWP relative permeability-saturation (krN-SW) relationships were measured at the local scale for six sands to examine the relationship between krN-SW functions and porous media type. Parameterization of the measured constitutive relationships revealed a strong correlation between mean grain diameter and the maximum value of NWP relative permeability. The measured krN-SW relationships, were validated through a bench scale experiment involving the infiltration, redistribution, and immobilisation of NWP in an initially water saturated heterogeneous porous medium. This match of simulation to experiment represents the first validation of a multiphase flow model for transient, fixed volume NWP releases. Multiphase flow simulations of the bench scale experiment were only able to reproduce the experimental observations, in both time and space, when the measured krN-SW relationships were employed. Two-dimensional field scale simulations of a fixed volume NWP release into a heterogeneous aquifer demonstrate the influence of spatially variable krN-S relationships correlated to porous media type. Both the volume of the NWP invaded porous media, and the length of time during which NWP is migrating, will be under predicted if variable (correlated) kr,N is not accounted for in the numerical model iv formulation. This under prediction is exacerbated as the mean intrinsic permeability of the release location decreases. A new, thermodynamically-based interfacial area (IFA) model was developed for use in the single-boundary layer expression of mass transfer as an alternative to existing empirical correlation expressions. The IFA model considers consistency and continuity of constitutive relationships, energy losses, effective specific interfacial area for mass transfer, and dissolution of residual NWP. A bench scale experiment involving the release and dissolution of a transient NWP source zone in heterogeneous porous media was conducted to evaluate the appropriateness of the developed IFA model when utilised to predict NWP dissolution rates. Comparison of measured downgradient dissolved phase concentrations and source zone NWP saturations in time and space with those from numerical simulations of the experiment reveal that the proposed IFA model is superior to both a local equilibrium assumption and existing empirical correlation expressions. This represents the first mass transfer model validated for the dissolution of a complex NWP source zone. Twodimensional simulations at the field scale of multiphase flow and dissolution suggest that employing existing mass transfer expressions instead of the IFA model lead to incorrect predictions of the life spans of NWP source zones, downgradient dissolved phase concentrations, and the rate of mass flux through a downgradient boundary. The practical implication of this research is that accurate numerical predictions of the evolution of a transient NWP source in porous media require consideration of krN-S relationships and NWP / aqueous phase IFA, as these factors dictate the rates of the key subsurface contaminant processes of migration and dissolution, respectively.

Sand transport in hilly terrain geometry is different and complex to understand compared to horizontal pipeline, due to the influence of the geometry that greatly affect multiphase flow and sand behaviour at the dip. The overall aim of this research work is to use experimental method to investigate the effects of multiphase flow behaviour on sand transport in a dip configuration. Experimental work was carried out to understand the complex dynamic mechanisms that exist during sand multiphase flow using 2” inch dip test facility with different inclination angles of ±24° and ±12° configurations. In order determine the multiphase flow parameters and sand flow regimes, extensive data were collected and analysed from continuous local measurement of instantaneous liquid hold up and sand hold up using conductivity rings. Significant observations were made during this study from which several conclusions were made. In the air–water test, three slug behaviours were observed at the dip: complete stratified flow downhill with slug initiation at dip; stratified flow (with energetic ripple) downhill with slug initiation and slug growth upward dip; and aerated slug downhill and slug growth at the dip. These behaviours are different from published work on this subject with low angle of inclination. The data analysis revealed that the two types of slug initiation mechanisms (wave growth and wave coalescence) observed are geometry specifics. The slug translational velocities (at the dip and uphill section) were used as criterion to determine the flow condition for each slug initiation mechanism at the dip. Significant observations were made during this study from which several conclusions were made. In the air–water test, three slug behaviours were observed at the dip: complete stratified flow downhill with slug initiation at dip; stratified flow (with energetic ripple) downhill with slug initiation and slug growth upward dip; and aerated slug downhill and slug growth at the dip. These behaviours are different from published work on this subject with low angle of inclination. The data analysis revealed that the two types of slug initiation mechanisms (wave growth and wave coalescence) observed are geometry specifics. The slug translational velocities (at the dip and uphill section) were used as criterion to determine the flow condition for each slug initiation mechanism at the dip. Five sand-water flow regimes (full suspension, streak, saltation, sand dune, and sand bed) were established by physical observation and data analysis. It was also observed that sand streaks were denser towards the central line of pipe bottom in the downhill pipe than that in uphill pipe. At downhill pipe section, there were sand gathering toward the central line of the pipe bottom. The characteristics of sand transportation at the dip section were found slightly different from downhill and uphill pipe for higher sand concentrations. When dense streak occurred at the downhill, the sand particles become dispersed at the dip. The minimum transport conditions (MTC) were determined at different sand concentration. The sand minimum transport condition in the dip section was found to be slightly lower than those in the downhill and uphill section. The minimum transport condition for a single phase water flow for the 24˚ dip. test section was slightly higher (with difference of about 0.1m/s) than that of the 12˚ at the downward and upward of the dip section at low sand concentration. In addition, local sand measurements using conductivity time series results at the downhill and uphill section showed the influence of sand concentration and flow condition on sand flow patterns. The air-water-sand results showed that sand deposits occurred in uphill section after sand transport at the downhill and dip sections. This was due to different flow regimes exhibited at the different pipe sections. The stratified (wavy) flow was the dominant flow in downhill pipe; therefore sand was observed transporting within the liquid film as thin streak for most of test conditions. The slug initiation at the dip section was observed to be a major factor that influences the sand behaviour. Sand particles in the slug unit (at the dip and uphill of the pipe) were observed to be entrained in the slug body once slug is initiated, thereby changing the force vector generating turbulence flow at the front of slug body. Once the sand particles entered the film zone of the slug unit, they immediately stopped moving forward due to the film velocity significantly lower than the slug body coupled with gravity effect. . Sand particles were found to be falling back while travelling with the water film at some conditions, until they were picked up by the next slug body. The results of this work provide a better understanding to the study of multiphase flow for pipeline design and most especially sand behaviour at the dip. The sand dune regime is identified distinctively using conductivity ring technique which would assist in determining the operating conditions that allow sand dune formation. The knowledge of flow condition at full suspension of sand is an important parameter to determine the erosion rate over the life span of the pipeline. Also, the quantity of sand bed and flow condition of sand settling at the dip is useful information for production chemist in order to determine the effectiveness of corrosion inhibitor at the bottom of the pipe. In conclusion, sand transport characteristics and MTC were strongly dependent on the gas-liquid flow regime and pipe geometry; and cannot be generalised on the superficial liquid and gas velocities of the transport fluid.

Membrane filtration is used in a variety of industries, including water treatment and the food industry. Membrane systems include microfiltration and reverse osmosis processes. Membranes used in reverse osmosis are nonporous or pores at 0.2-2 A. This work will focus on mechanical microfiltration. These filtration systems suffer from an accumulation of the rejected material near the membrane surface. This causes additional resistance to the flow through the membrane (flux), resulting in a decline in the performance of the system. Sparging gas bubbles into the mixture has been shown to improve performance. The flow field promotes the transport of material away from the membrane surface and into the bulk. The goal is to predict the sparging that will achieve the maximum flux. Existing flux prediction models often assume steady shear at the membrane surface but in bubbling regimes the shear stresses are unsteady. In this thesis a model is developed to calculate the flux based not solely on shear but on the behaviour and resistance of suspended particles in a gas-liquid flow field. The bubble shape and flow field is calculated using computation fluid dynamics (CFD). The flow around a bubble in gap between two parallel flat sheet membranes is investigated. The calculated bubble shape correlates well with the results seen in experiments. The bubble rise velocity with respect to gap width is shown to transition between that expected in the literature for extended flow for large gap widths and that for a two dimensional case for smaller gap widths. The transitional region however, does not behave as may be expected. The rise velocity does not monotonically decrease as the gap width is reduced. The particle concentration is found by the solution of the convection-diffusion equation, where the convection velocity terms are given by the results of the CFD calculation. The permeate flux is then calculated using a resistance model giving the enhancement due to the bubble. The model is also applied to single phase crossflow. As the shear stresses are steady in this single-phase flow regime, established membrane shear linked mass-transfer coefficient methods can be employed. Good agreement is found between the model and theory. The flux results obtained when the model is applied to the flow around the bubble show a peak in performance with respect to the gap between the membranes for a given bubble volume. The optimal flux enhancement is found to correlate well with the bubble size compared to the flow area. The results show a bubble width of around 60% of the flow width provides the best flux performance.